Fertilizer Reports

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    A Dynamic Model to Forecast and Evaluate Changes and Trends in the Global Market for Fertilizers
    (2011-05) Marcien Nibasumba
    Fertilizers, improved seed and modernized crop management practices have contributed substantially to increases in agricultural productivity in recent decades, while helping to conserve ever-shrinking land resources and water supplies. Fertilizers will continue to play a key role in expanding agricultural productivity to meet the ever-increasing world demand for food, feed and bio-fuels. Forecasts of the trends that drive the rapidly expanding demand for these agricultural products and the associated supply of crop nutrients are critical for sound decision-making on a wide range of policy issues. Such trend forecasts are crucial to improving strategic planning and resource allocation; prioritizing investments in fertilizer production/supply expansion (based on expected impacts and risks); and reducing risks associated with the development of government policy and public/private sector investment. The objective of this paper is to illustrate the capability of FertTrade, a fertilizer trade model/algorithm created by IFDC as an analytical tool to address questions about development of the fertilizer and agricultural sectors around the world. Fert Trade estimates trends in the demand, production, supply and trade of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) fertilizer nutrients through 2025. FertTrade also assesses "what if" scenarios to evaluate changes in national variables such as populations, incomes, crop areas and yields. Fert Trade is a tool that can be used to help understand the nature and concept of derived fertilizer demand and the variables that are primary reasons for changes in that demand. The following factors are taken into account in the FertTrade modeling process: 1. Nature of Fertilizer Demand. 2. Climate Change. 3. Population and Income Growth. 4. Demand for Bio-Fuels. 5. Fertilizer and Food Prices. 6. Improvements in Technology. Fert Trade's analytics can be used to evaluate scenarios of changing demographic, economic, technological and agro-climatic circumstances that affect agricultural production and the global demand, production and trade of the major fertilizer nutrients (N, P and K). For demonstration purposes, Fert Trade was used to estimate and evaluate trends in the demand, production and trade of these fertilizer nutrients globally on the basis of estimates aggregated for the world as a whole, regionally and sub-regionally. Crop production outputs produced as simulation outcomes were used to estimate quantities of derived demand for the nutrients in each of the nations/sub-regions. The model included five major components: 1. Scenario design. 2. Estimation of crop production outputs by a commodity market model. 3. Estimation of the derived demand for the three fertilizer nutrients 4. Projections of production capacities and supplies of N, P and K. 5. Estimation of volumes and patterns of trade for N, P and K. Trend modeling and projections of demand/supply of world fertilizer nutrients through 2025 are also vital compo- nents of Fert Trade. Trends in key countries, regions and sub-regions are also addressed. Results of national/sub- regional analyses of demand and supply projections for N, P and K nutrients in 2005, 2015 and 2025 will be detailed and summarized in this paper. Highlights of these trends include: 1. Exponential rates of growth of demand for N, P and K. 2. Projected fertilizer demand growth rates during 2005-2025 3. Increases in the demand and consumption of N, P and K fertilizers 4. Increases in the production and supply of N, P and K fertilizers 5. The supply-demand balance and trade of N, Pand K fertilizers Currently, FertTrade is a useful tool for policy change and reclusology development decisions that she fertilizer performance and agriculture sectors globally, regionally and nationally in this context, the codel can be used to evaluate ex-ante changes induced by policies or technology innovations that affect these sectors using "what if scenarios. Thus, FertTrade can be used to assess such changes in teos of impacts an agricultural production productivity and the demand, supply and trade of fertilizers. A "what if scenario was designed to assess the primary economic and enviniamental impacts of cuccessfully increasing fertilizer N use efficiency in cereal production from 40 percent to 60 percent. Then, the potential emo feasibility for society as a whole to invest in such technology was assessed. Subjects of the evaluation include 1. The efficiency of fertilizer N applied to crops. 2. The context for assessment of impact of increased N-efficiency in cereal production 3. Impact on consumption of fertilizer N. 4. Impact on losses of fertilizer N to the environment 5. Economic impact in developing countries. 6. Impact on the environment. Results will show that even if investments in this effort are substantial (175 $4 billion during five years), res on investment will justify such investments-if the N use efficiency goals are reached and the projected levels of adoption by cereal farmers are achieved within the proposed time horizon of 10-15 years. Fert Trade currently is utilized for analyses and evaluation of issues and evolving circumstances that affect fertil izer sectors and agricultural production and development globally, regionally and nationally. However, Feride's capabilities and applications can be significantly expanded through additional model development and refinement. For example, by expanding its capability to derive estimates of, and pollution associated with, livestock and emp production (as well as fertilizer production and use), environmental impacts could be estimated and assessed Sub- quently, FertTrade could be used to evaluate scenarios of changing circumstances in terms of potential enviromental impacts. The model's current capabilities, limitations and possibilities for further development will be described and detailed over the course of the paper.
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    A Seeding Program for Fertilizer Marketing
    (1984-12) IFDC
    Fertilizer marketing seeding programs have been widely used in the fertilizer industry for several decades. However, there is still no standard understanding or definition of the term. This lack of clarity often leads to interchangeable terms such as seeding program, pilot program, trial marketing, marketing startup, and test marketing. To be effective, fertilizer marketing seeding programs must be properly designed and implemented, tailored to achieve specific goals. A fertilizer marketing seeding program is a planned marketing activity aimed at introducing a new product, technology, procedure, or a combination of these on a limited basis into a market. The program allows for gathering information and gaining experience to refine operational procedures before a full-scale marketing operation. It involves testing proven concepts in a new area and is usually conducted 1 to 3 years before the full-scale marketing effort. The program's limitations are based on geography and product quantity. The selected geographic area should represent the fertilizer market to be covered later. The quantity limitation refers to the product offered for sale in the program, typically a small percentage of the quantity to be sold in a full-scale marketing program.It is important to distinguish a yielding variety of crops. The key is to tailor the seeding program to the specific goals and needs of the target market. Seeding programs play a crucial role in the fertilizer industry by providing an opportunity to introduce new products, technologies, procedures, or combinations thereof in a controlled and limited manner. The information and experiences gathered during the program help refine operational procedures, adjust concepts, and gain valuable insights before implementing a full-scale marketing operation. Geographical and product quantity limitations are important considerations in designing a seeding program. The selected area should represent the target fertilizer market and be large enough to provide valid information while still being manageable. The quantity of product offered should be a percentage of what is planned for a full-scale marketing program. It is essential to distinguish a seeding program from premarket testing. Before considering its inclusion in a seeding program, premarket testing focuses on basic research activities, such as assessing product suitability, performance, and economics. The seeding program is a trial phase to validate concepts and gain further knowledge. The goals of a fertilizer seeding program can vary but generally include introducing unfamiliar fertilizers or technologies to farmers, creating brand identity and loyalty, implementing new farming practices, refining marketing systems and components, identifying constraints to fertilizer use and overcoming them, and determining institutional support required for an effective marketing system. A well-planned seeding program follows a miniaturized version of a larger fertilizer marketing plan. It comprises various components such as product and supply planning, sales planning, agronomic planning, advertising and sales promotion planning, market research planning, distribution planning, pricing planning, and personnel development planning. Each component has specific objectives and activities to achieve them, ensuring a balanced approach to product, price, place, and promotion. Planning and phasing are critical aspects of a seeding program. The timeline and activities may vary depending on the program's objectives and market context. However, a typical program spans multiple years. It involves determining objectives, selecting target areas, planning activities, training staff, arranging products and pricing policies, budgeting, monitoring procedures, and adjusting program elements based on results. To ensure the success of a seeding program, precautions must be taken to avoid common pitfalls. These include clearly defining program objectives, obtaining management approval and support, careful planning before initiation, securing necessary institutional and government support, integrating the program within a larger marketing plan, allowing sufficient time for desired results, establishing monitoring mechanisms, maintaining effective communication, and ensuring staff motivation and dedication.Effective program management is crucial for the success of a seeding program. The manager must meticulously oversee all aspects, ensuring the program is designed to overcome challenges, coordinating tasks and resources, monitoring performance, and making necessary adjustments. Consistency in management style between the seeding program and the larger marketing effort is essential for accurate comparative results.Fertilizer seeding programs are not limited to specific countries or stages of agricultural development. They can be implemented in various contexts, including developing and developed agricultural sectors. The key is to adapt the program to the specific needs and objectives of the target market, whether it involves introducing new fertilizers, technologies, or practices or refining existing marketing systems. Therefore, fertilizer seeding programs are valuable tools in the fertilizer industry for introducing new products, technologies, and practices. When properly designed and implemented, they can lead to successful market penetration and improved agricultural outcomes. However, careful planning, goal setting, program management, and evaluation are necessary to maximize the benefits of seeding programs and ensure their alignment with broader marketing strategies.
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    Agroecological Principles of Integrated Soil Fertility Management-A Guide With Special Reference to Sub-Saharan Africa
    (2008) M.C.S. Wopereis; Abdoulaye Mando ; Bernard Vanlauwe
    This publication focuses on the crucial role of soil fertility in agriculture and its impact on food security and livelihoods in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). With a large percentage of the population dependent on agriculture in the region, the study highlights the importance of integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) to increase land productivity while maintaining or enhancing soil fertility. The publication explores the factors influencing soil fertility, including natural processes, human interventions, and human settlements, as well as the impact of access to resources on soil fertility management. It also examines the trend of soil nutrient depletion and low fertilizer use in Africa, emphasizing the need for sustainable agricultural practices. The guide introduces agroecological principles and frameworks for ISFM at the farm and field levels, providing insights into nutrient flows and productivity. IFDC aims to enhance agricultural production and sustainability in SSA by promoting a participatory approach and farmer-led research.
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    Beneficial Organisms for Nutrient Uptake
    (2014-01) Bindraban, Prem S.; Nina Koele; Thomas W. Kuyper
    Phosphorus (P) availability is a major global limiting factor in crop production. The global input of mineral P fertilizer in food production is significant, but its efficiency is low, with only approximately 20% of applied P being converted into consumed P in food. Moreover, excessive application of P can lead to its accumulation in soils. As P resources are finite, maximizing their efficient use and stimulating the uptake of newly applied P fertilizers is crucial. This study investigates the hypothesis that enhancing early plant growth can improve plant P uptake, regardless of soil P levels. Experiments demonstrate that the recovery of mineral P fertilizer by crops is generally low, often less than 30%. Much of the applied fertilizer becomes bound to the soil complex, rendering it unavailable for plant uptake. Soil chemical processes produce very low P concentrations in the soil solution, whereas root concentrations are significantly higher. P deficiency in soils produces low crop yields, particularly in developing countries. To address this, the P concentration in the soil solution must be increased, or plants should possess enhanced abilities to extract P from the soil complex. Increasing P availability in soils requires substantial P application over several years, exceeding the crop's yearly uptake. Soil "loading" with P can occur unintentionally in regions with nutrient surpluses, such as areas with concentrated livestock production. These fertile soils contain excessive amounts of P compared to the crop's annual uptake. Similarly, less fertile soils have lower total P content but also lower crop off-take. In both cases, soil P reserves are abundant and could sustain agricultural production for many years if made available to the crop. This study emphasizes the importance of enhancing early plant growth to improve P uptake efficiency and utilize indigenous soil resources effectively. By increasing our understanding of plant-soil interactions and developing strategies to optimize P availability and uptake, we can enhance agricultural productivity while minimizing the environmental impact of excessive P application.
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    Beyond N and P: Toward a Land Resource Ecology Perspective and Impactful Fertilizer Interventions in Sub-Saharan Africa
    (2015-01) Bindraban, Prem S. ; Roelf L. Voortman
    Crop plants require essential nutrients from the soil in specific quantities and proportions for optimal growth and yield. Inadequate nutrient availability can lead to poor crop performance. While soil may contain sufficient nutrients, it may not be readily accessible to plants. In such cases, plants employ nutrient acquisition mechanisms like root exudation or mutualistic interactions with soil biota. However, there are instances where one or more nutrients still need to be improved, necessitating fertilizer application to achieve significant yield improvements. This report focuses on the potential of impactful fertilizer interventions that result in substantial yield increases at low doses, making them more affordable for small-scale farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. It highlights the importance of considering a broader spectrum of essential plant nutrients beyond nitrogen and phosphorus, as these could be limiting factors in tropical soils. The research conducted in Africa has primarily concentrated on nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers, despite evidence suggesting deficiencies in other essential nutrients. The paper examines the variability of crop yield responses to nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers and emphasizes the need for site-specific fertilizer applications considering nutrient dose and composition. It presents case studies conducted in the Miombo woodland biome, a prevalent vegetation type in Central-South Africa, to assess soil fertility and key soil chemistry factors influencing nutrient deficiencies. These case studies explore the impact of essential nutrients like calcium, potassium, magnesium, sulfur, and micronutrients (boron, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, and zinc) on crop yield. The report acknowledges the scarcity of comprehensive data and statistical analysis on combined nutrient impacts under prevailing soil and climatic conditions. However, it utilizes available data sets from selected case studies to gain insights into nutrient deficiencies beyond nitrogen and phosphorus. The findings emphasize the importance of addressing critical nutrient deficiencies and developing tailored fertilizer technologies specific to the Miombo biome and sub-Saharan Africa as a whole. Furthermore, the report compares soil fertility data from the Miombo biome with the Brazilian Cerrado, highlighting similarities and differences. It discusses the success of agricultural productivity advancements in Brazil and suggests a similar research approach for sub-Saharan Africa to identify nutrient deficiencies and develop appropriate fertilizer technologies.
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    Biochemical Nutrient Pathways in Plants Applied as Foliar Spray: Phosphorus and Iron
    (2013-01) Bindraban, Prem S.; Renu Pandey; Vengavasi Krishnapriya
    In plants, the roots are traditionally the primary site for water and inorganic nutrient absorption from the soil. However, recent research has shown that foliage, including leaves, stems, inflorescence, and fruits, can also affect nutrient uptake. This study aims to review the general pathways of foliar nutrient absorption and investigate the specific mechanisms involved in the penetration, absorption, and translocation of phosphorus (P) and iron (Fe) into various cell organelles. The physico-chemical properties of the spray formulation used for foliar application, such as pH, surface tension, polarity, spreading, and fluid retention, influence the efficacy of nutrient uptake. Additionally, the molecular size, ionic charge, and solubility of nutrient elements in the spray fluid, along with environmental factors such as relative humidity, temperature, light, and wind, affect the rate of foliar uptake. Plant-related factors like phenological stage, leaf morphology (shape, presence of hairs, stomatal characteristics), leaf surface architecture, chemistry, and nutrient mobility within the plant also contribute to foliar nutrient uptake efficiency. Soil fertilization of P and Fe is often limited by their low bioavailability, primarily influenced by soil pH. Slow diffusion and P fixation in soil result in limited availability of P, with plants absorbing only 10-20% of applied P during the growing season. Similarly, Fe availability is reduced at higher pH levels, and its deficiency is more pronounced in growing plant tissues. Foliar application of nutrients can effectively address the low bioavailability of P and Fe in soil and provide immediate relief from nutrient stress. Although foliar application cannot completely replace soil fertilization, it can enhance plant growth. This paper reviews and synthesizes existing literature on the pathways of foliar nutrient absorption and explores the biochemical processes involved in P and Fe penetration, absorption, and translocation within plant cells. Understanding these processes can aid in identifying effective nutrient compositions and developing advanced foliar fertilizers. The findings contribute to the knowledge of foliar nutrient uptake mechanisms and support the development of sustainable agricultural practices.
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    Development and Dissemination of Sustainable Integrated Soil Fertility Management Practices for Smallholder Farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa
    (2005-12) IFDC
    The Development and Dissemination of Sustainable and Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) Practices for Smallholder Farms in Sub-Saharan Africa were implemented by IFDC and TSBF of the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and partners at key sites in seven West African countries. The key sites in West Africa were Benin, Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Togo, and Ghana, and Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe were key sites in Southern Africa. The ISFM Framework Project started in May 2001 and ended in December 2004. At all sites, activities were based on annual action plans developed with partners during annual workshops. Action plans typically included training, research, public awareness, and up/out scaling activities. Partners included seven IFAD investment programs, thirteen national research institutes and universities, fifteen non-governmental organizations (NGOs), five financial institutions, and ten national extension agencies. Two networks were active in coordinating the research and extension efforts—the Agricultural Intensification in Sub-Saharan Africa (AISSA) network established with financial backing from this project and convened by IFDC and the African Network for Soil Biology and Fertility (AfNet) convened by TSBF-CIAT. Although biased toward the latter, the project’s logical framework encompassed the entire research-to-development continuum from process research to adaptive research and dissemination. At the process level, the project generated an improved understanding of interactions between organic inputs and mineral fertilizers and their impact on soil organic matter buildup and nutrient supply. More insight was also gained into farmers’ priorities regarding soil fertility management and social and gender differences among farmers regarding access and management of soil resources. The key challenge at the action research level was combining local knowledge of socio-economic and biophysical determinants of yield and soil quality with scientific knowledge of agroecological principles to develop practical and feasible technologies to boost farm production and maintain or improve soil fertility. Many technological options (two to three options per site) were evaluated in three main farming systems, i.e., the agro-pastoral millet/sorghum system, the maize-mixed system, and the irrigated rice-based system. In low-input systems, most evaluated technologies were based on combining organic inputs and judicious use of mineral fertilizers. Organic inputs included household waste, cattle manure, and straw. Other technological options tested with farmers focused on introducing N-fixing legumes in farming systems, such as mucuna, soybean, and cowpea. Fertilizer-N recovery rates were doubled in most cases (from a low 0.10–0.15 kg kg1 to 0.4 kg kg1 for sorghum). Yields were increased from 0.4 to 0.7 t ha1 to 2 to 2.7 for sorghum and from 0.8 t ha1 to 3 to 4 t ha1 for maize. In the Sahel and Sudano-savanna zone, water conservation technologies were combined with improved soil fertility management (including precision placement of microdoses of mineral fertilizer) to achieve higher and more sustainable yields. In high-input rice-based systems, the focus was on site specific nutrient management and improved crop management in general. Compared with existing recommendations, yield gains of 0.15 to 0.55 t ha1 were obtained with site-specific approaches at equal costs leading to increased gross returns above fertilizer costs by an average of U.S. $140 per season compared with both farmers’ practice and existing recommendations. The research results were used to develop and fine-tune several decision support tools that can be used to conduct ex-ante impact analyses of promising technologies. The National Agricultural Research and Extension Systems (NARES) and NGO staff involved in the project were trained in participatory learning and action-research approaches emphasizing agroecological principles rather than technology prescriptions. Attention was also paid to the development of institutional arrangements to facilitate the adoption of the technological options, such as improved access to mineral fertilizer and credit, through collaboration with two other IFDC projects funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA). These efforts culminated in the development the Competitive Agricultural Systems and Enterprises (CASE) approach. CASE combines participatory development of improved natural resource management technologies with coordinated efforts to experiment and extend alternative institutional arrangements that link farmers with input dealers, micro-finance, and traders. CASE also strengthens the innovative capacities of the various stakeholders involved. The CASE approach was evaluated with partners within the AISSA network. As a result of the project, 40 scientific papers were published or submitted to journals; four PhD theses and numerous M.S. theses were also written. Seven technical advisory notes (TANs) were derived from the research data. The project summarized the agroecological principles of ISFM in a manual; it also contributed to a facilitators’ manual, a technical manual for inland valley rice systems, and an ISFM manual published by an NGO (VeCO). The project actively worked with partners within IFAD-funded investment programs: • The former rural development project in southern Togo (PODV). • The South-West Development Project. • The special program for soil and water conservation and agro-forestry in Burkina Faso. • The Smallholder Floodplains Development Program, Malawi. • The Southern Province Household Food Security Program in Zambia. • The South-East Dry Areas Project. • The Smallholder Dry Areas Resource Management Project in Zimbabwe. • The Umutara Community Resources and Infrastructure Development Project (UCRIDP) in Rwanda. The project provided technical backstopping and training and stimulated participatory research on technological options and institutional arrangement to accelerate agricultural intensification using the CASE approach. Project staff also participated in formulation missions for the Programme d’Investissement Communautaire en Fertilité Agricole (PICOFA) and Projet de Développement Rural Durable du Burkina Faso (PDRDB) investment programs in Burkina Faso. Contacts were also established with IFAD investment programs in Ghana, Nigeria, Benin, and Mozambique. Two international training courses (one in English, one in French) were organized on the technological and institutional aspects of ISFM for partners from NARES, NGOs, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and investment program staff. The English training material is currently used for a distance learning course via the Internet by the Sustainable Development of Learning Network in Bangkok. Several training courses tailored to the specific needs and demands of partners at key sites were also provided. Many exchange visits and workshops were organized to enhance knowledge dissemination between countries and regions. The main lessons from the project are that translating research results into farm practice is not just about technologies but, more especially, about people and reinforcing their decision-making and capacity to analyze trade-offs and options and access information, services, and markets. This calls for a new approach to doing business in agricultural research and development. This new paradigm emphasizes interdisciplinary teamwork, inter-institutional partnerships, stakeholder involvement, participatory approaches, and systems thinking.
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    Digital Mapping of Soil Nutrients for the Republics of Burundi and Rwanda
    (2015) Bindraban, Prem S. ; María Ruipérez González ; Kempen Bas ; Sandra Wolters; Cyrille Hicintuka; Zacharie Nzohabonayo; Wendt John ; Oscar Nduwimana; John Veerkamp
    Lack of awareness about soil fertility constraints is a major limitation to developing sound liming and fertilizer recommendations in sub-Saharan Africa. Detailed maps of soil nutrient concentrations and soil acidity can help to identify areas with soil fertility constraints. For this purpose, maps of primary (P, K), secondary (Ca, Mg, S) and micronutrients (Cu, Zn, B), as well as pH, soil acidity (Al+H), effective CEC and organic matter were generated for the 0-20 cm soil layer by means of digital soil mapping using random forest models at a 250 m spatial resolution for Burundi and Rwanda. The models explained between 20% and 45% of the variation in the data.
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    Effect of Micronutrient Micnobit and Salt Fertilization on Lettuce
    (2016-01) Bindraban, Prem S.; Christian O. Dimkpa; Jongschaap, R.E.E.; Vos, C.H.; Van der Lee, M.K.; Van der Werf, A.K.; De Visser, W.; M. Blom-Zandstra
    Plants can absorb nano- and micro-size particles containing nutrients, opening the possibility for instantaneous uptake of nutrients supplied through roots or leaves. Here, we studied the uptake by lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) of particulate nutrients from a micnobit (mixture of nanoparticles producing different nano and micro-scale sizes) formulation composed of ZnO, CuO, Fe3O4, MnO, and B2O3 used as fertilizers, in comparison to a similar mixture of their ionic equivalents from salts of Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn and boric acid at levels optimal for growth, yield, metabolism and nutritional quality attributes in food crops. In the case of Zn, the effect of a double dose compared to the basic fertilization was also studied to evaluate the possibility of increasing Zn levels in vegetable crops, as a potential strategy for alleviating Zn deficiency in human/animal diets. A greenhouse pot experiment was conducted using a sandy soil (pH 7.1) poor in most nutrients, including micronutrients but rich in calcium, and with very low content of organic matter to study the effects of micronutrient fertilization on lettuce. For application of the micronutrients, four fertilizer treatments were used: i) traditional (ionic) fertilizer; ii) micnobit particle coated seeds, iii) micnobit foliar application (spraying treatment), and iv) micnobit soil application. The lettuce plants were grown for 73 days and harvested periodically to study fresh and dry weight production and leaf greenness by SPAD measurements over time. Shoot or root materials from the final harvest was used to determine contents of micronutriënts, leaf chlorophyll and biomolecules (vitamins, flavonoids, phenolics, and antioxidants). Values from SPAD measurements significantly differed between the harvests and showed an increase with time up to 59 days after sowing. Differences between the treatments were less distinct, but showed the highest values between the Priming and Control treatments. Chlorophyll contents did not significantly differ between the treatments. The lettuce plants showed S-shaped growth under all treatments, although the foliar applications, both with micnobits and ions, caused necrosis at the leaf edges in the long run. Also, Foliar application with micnobits caused deposition and showed black spots on the leaves that could not be removed by rinsing methods described in the literature. Growth analysis, i.e. production of fresh weight, dry weight and root-total weight ratio over time, showed that for both shoot and root, the Control treatment resulted in the best growth. Priming of seeds resulted in similar growth as at the Control treatment. Addition of micronutrients to soil or leaves, both applied as ions or as micnobits, even decreased fresh weight and dry weight production of lettuce. Moreover, the shoots and roots of plants in the Control treatment also showed accumulation of micronutrients, while no micronutrients had been applied. No significant differences were found between the Foliar application and Soil treatments. Moreover, even no significant differences were found between application of micnobits or application of ions. Thus, we concluded that the soil - although very poor with a low content of micronutrients - was not lacking in the tested nutrients and the low availability of micronutrients in the soil was already sufficient for an optimal growth. The determination of micronutrient contents showed that ions and micnobits were taken up by both roots (Soil treatments) and by leaves (Foliar application). However, the amounts of micronutrients found in the leaves appeared to be higher than those described in literature for plant shoots with adequate growth. The contents of the micronutrients other than Fe varied between the treatments in both leaves and roots, suggesting excessive uptake that could have inhibited biomass production in these treatments. Foliar application with ions resulted in a higher micronutrient content than foliar application with micnobits. The fact that all treatments, whether applied to the leaves or to the soil or via priming, resulted in an accumulation of micronutrients in both shoots and roots, proved that the micronutrients had been transferred through the plants from the shoot to the roots (Foliar application) and from the roots to the shoot (Soil application). However, it could not be determined in which form, i.e. whether as ions, micnobits or metabolically processed, the micronutrients were transported through the plant. The presence of micnobits could only be detected for Fe2O3, CuO and MnO3. However, due to a high noise level in the ICP-MS sample analyses, it was not possible to quantify the content of the elements properly. Vitamin C content in leaves was highest in plants from the Control treatment, but not significant different from other treatments. No clear distinction could be made between the Soil and Foliar application, nor between treatments with ions or with micnobits. LCMS profiles of the lettuce leaves showed a relative intensity of 257 compounds present in the leaves. In the Soil and Foliar application, 80 out of the 237 metabolites (25%) had been changed significantly, although not annotated, from which 66 of them revealed a more than 2-fold difference. We conclude that this study with composite nanoparticles could not endorse the hypothesis that micnobits will be taken up more efficiently than ions, or that they will enhance growth in lettuce as reported in the literature for other crops. Furthermore, this study also clearly demonstrates the need for plant tissue testing as an important yardstick for supporting soil-based nutrient testing, prior to fertilizer recommendations.
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    Eliminating Zinc Deficiency in Rice-Based Systems
    (2014-02) Andreas Duffner; Ellis Hoffland; Tjeerd Jan Stomph; Alida Melse-Boonstra; Bindraban, Prem S.
    Zinc deficiency is a wide-spread and serious problem both in human populations and in crop production. It is a relevant issue in rice-based systems due to their extent and role in human nutrition worldwide. There is an urgent need to increase human Zn intake through biofortification strategies in these systems. Particularly in developing countries, there is a spatial correlation between human Zn deficiency and low Zn soils Main soil factors controlling plant-available Zn are pH, redox condition, organic matter content and concentrations of other trace elements. By far the biggest fraction of total Zn is adsorbed to the soil's solid phase in most soils. This requires management practices that avoid a risk for Zn fertilizer failure and/or a choice of rice cultivars that are able to mobilize Zn adsorbed by the soil's solid phase. Management practices could include balancing Zn with N and P fertilization, seed or follar application of Zn and effective organic matter management. On the plant level the rooting density, the root efflux (exudates) and influx (Zn) and Zn translocation are important factors. The translocation from aboveground vegetative tissues to the grain endosperm seems the most limiting step to reach higher Zn concentrations in grains. Genetic variation in several steps leading to grain Zn loading have been found, but options to align these do not seem to have been fully explored. It probably needs combination of breeding with Zn application treatments to both tackle Zn deficiencies at the crop growth stage and at grain Zn loading stages. The role of N fertilization in creating synergy also needs further investigations. To improve human Zn intake, several strategies can be applied, such as supplementation, dietary diversification and food fortification. Among these, biofortifying rice through breeding or agronomic management is the most sustainable strategy and unlikely to pose any adverse health effects on people. The few case studies available support this conclusion.
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    Establishing a Viable Fertilizer Quality Detection System
    (2014-04) K. Perumal; J. Arunkuma; S. Ananthi; T.A. Sambanda Moorthy; B. Karthik; Bindraban, Prem S.; Upendra Singh
    The proof of concept project entitled “Establishing the Viability of a Fertilizer Quality Detection System Using Alternative Analytical Technology (FAAT)” is aimed at developing a quick and robust methodology to determine the nutrient content in fertilizers. The methodology comprises the use of circular paper chromatography (CPC) and digital characterization of the corresponding chromatographic images incorporated in a database for automated assessments. One hundred (from the United States) and 22 (from India) different types of fertilizers were procured from the United States and India, and their nutrient properties were analyzed following conventional methods. These fertilizer samples were further diluted in 100 mL of 1% NaOH to obtain 3800 fertilizer concentrations. For the Indian fertilizers, 2200 samples were obtained with all 22 fertilizers by generating 100 different samples in incremental dilutions of 0.050g, up to 5 g. For the IFDC fertilizers, 1600 samples were similarly obtained from 80 of the 100 fertilizers, diluted up to 1 g. These fertilizer concentrations were analyzed using CPC. Three databases were created to serve as reference, comprising (i) the Indian fertilizer database with 1500 reference fertilizer sample images, (ii) the IFDC database with 563 samples and (iii) a combined database of 2063 samples. Finally, an unknown fertilizer chromatographic image from unknown fertilizer sample types was used for testing the accuracy of the methodology by comparing the chromatographic images with the images contained in the reference databases. Out of the 25 test samples from IFDC, 21 reported similarity between AAT methodology and conventional analytical methods for nutrient content determination, and hence on quality, implying that 84% were mimicked correctly. Out of the 18 fertilizers from India, 11 tested correctly when using the database with 1500 references, representing about 61% accuracy of retrieving the correct fertilizer type and quality. The consolidated database containing both IFDC and Indian fertilizer (2063) was tested and recorded 34 out of 43 test samples that were similar between the FAAT system and conventional analytical methods, indicating about 70% accuracy. The existing AAT software was fine-tuned and integrated as unique stand-alone software for the FAAT system and used for fertilizer testing. An investigation was also carried with two types of fertilizers: urea and single superphosphate (SSP), and deliberately adulterating them with low grade inputs. The urea fertilizer was adulterated with ammonium sulfate (AS) and single superphosphate in the ratios of 1:0, 1:1, 1:3 and 3:1. The adulterated fertilizers were blended using mortar and pestle and 0.500g and 1.000 g were taken for CPC image development. Both the urea fertilizer and SSP were adulterated with AS and gypsum and tested on the FAAT system based on CPC images. The adulterated samples were retrieved from the data base and indicated 100% and 71% accuracy, respectively. Our study shows that with further refinement, the use of AAT methodology for testing fertilizer nutrient content and the presence of contaminants, and hence quality of the fertilizer, is a promising technology.
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    Fertilizer Sector Improvement (FSI+) : FALL ARMYWORM ACTIVITY
    (2019-11) Htoo Htoo Aung
    The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) requested that the Fertilizer Sector Improvement (FSI+) project provide extension services in the FSI+ regions affected by fall armyworm (FAW). USAID and the chief of party (COP) of the FSI+ project agreed to implement the FAW activity as an extension of the project, which originally concluded in August 2019. The extension team began preparing a training manual, poster, and pamphlets on May 14, 2019, based on a training manual of the International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC) in Bangladesh. The team then liaised with the Plant Protection Division (PPD) of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation (MOALI) to ensure consistent delivery of technical information. FAW retailer trainings were conducted in Pindaya, Aung Ban, Nyaung Shwe, and Taunggyi townships of southern Shan State at the end of May 2019. Twelve demonstration field schools were selected in six townships with active input retailers who were willing to lead. In June 2019, establishment of the demonstration field schools began, and by August 2019, one-time farmer trainings and five scoutings were performed. Sample plot harvesting of the demonstration field schools and random farmers’ crop cuts were completed during October 2019. The second edition of a training manual was produced during September 2019, and retailer training began in the Delta Region at Maubin, Zalun, and Letpadan townships. During October 2019, six demonstration field schools were established and scouting continued in five townships. Scouting was handed over to lead retailers and the Department of Agriculture (DOA) of each township and continued until the conclusion of the FSI+ extension activity at the end of November 2019.
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    Fertilizer Subsidies in Developing Countries
    (1984-12)
    The purpose of a fertilizer subsidy in most countries is to encourage the farmer to use more fertilizer, thereby increasing agricultural production. In Indonesia, the fertilizer subsidy has been used as an important input in programs to attain self-sufficiency in producing rice and other food crops. Due to these programs, fertilizer consumption in Indonesia has increased at an annual rate of 16% during the past 15 years. In Burkina Faso, fertilizers were subsidized as a short-term measure, primarily for cotton, but the subsidies were continued because of large food deficits. Argentina is using fertilizers to increase foreign exchange earnings by producing more grain. In the Ivory Coast, fertilizer is subsidized to increase cotton production, the major cash crop, and to reduce rice imports, which have increased as the population has migrated to the cities. In Gambia, groundnut production is the major source of foreign exchange earnings, and fertilizers have been subsidized to promote groundnut production. In Colombia, fertilizer is subsidized to promote exports by encouraging farmers to use modern coffee varieties. The subsidy influences coffee production, and the percentage of the subsidized fertilizer depends on the country's coffee stocks and the world supply /demand situation. In Zambia, subsidies have been used to reduce food imports and improve the standard of living. How Subsidies are Set Many countries set the fertilizer price by using the subsidy mechanism. Several countries, including India, Indonesia, Ivory Coast, Nepal, the Philippines, Turkey, and Venezuela, also set crop prices. Chile, which has no subsidy, sets minimum crop prices related to international market prices. There does not seem to be a fixed fertilizer: crop price ratio that countries try to achieve in setting the fertilizer subsidy or crop and fertilizer price relationships. The levels of crop and fertilizer prices are generally political decisions made at high levels of government and based on the country's finances and present food situation, as well as its goals and trade policies. Countries try to set crop: fertilizer price relationships to encourage fertilizer use. In Sierra Leone, fertilizer prices are set by a cabinet decision. In Zambia, recommendations are made by the National Agricultural Marketing Board in conjunction with the Department of Agriculture and approved by the Cabinet. Indonesia tries to set crop and fertilizer prices to achieve a ratio of 2. 0. In India, price subsidies are used on grain sales through government-controlled fair price shops. In Turkey, wheat is the major food crop. The wheat: 1 fertilizer price ratio is set to encourage wheat farmers to use fertilizer. Other prices are set about that of wheat. In most countries, the subsidy is set for 1 year. In Colombia, the government sets the fertilizer price every 3 months to reflect changes in inflation or currency devaluations. The fertilizer subsidy in Colombia is changed whenever the fertilizer price is changed. Prices in Sierra Leone changed twice in 1984. Fertilizer prices in Indonesia remained constant from 1977 to November 1982 and have not changed. In India, fertilizer prices have been in effect since June 1983. This is usually done annually in countries such as India, where the government sets crop prices. In Colombia, minimum crop prices are changed twice per year. Prices are usually set immediately preceding the cropping season. However, in Venezuela, prices for many crops have been in effect since 1980. Prices of maize were set in 1981 and those of rice in 1982. Amount of Subsidy Burkina Faso subsidizes about 40% of the actual fertilizer cost, but this amount is being reduced yearly. The new subsidy in Venezuela includes a reduction of 50% in the selling price of each fertilizer product and an additional adjustment according to the new exchange rate for imported raw materials. Before being abolished in Saudi Arabia, the fertilizer subsidy was set at 50% of the ex-factory or the c. i. f. import price. When the subsidy was in effect in the Philippines, urea was subsidized at about 30% of the selling price. The subsidy for locally produced compounds such as 14-14-14 was about twice the rate of the subsidy on imported products. In Gambia, 61% of the urea price, 62% of the diammonium phosphate (DAP) price, and 96% of the single superphosphate (SSP) price are subsidized. In Sri Lanka, urea receives a subsidy of 56%, while mono ammonium phosphate (MOP) receives a subsidy of only 33%. In Zambia, where urea is imported, it receives less than a 1% subsidy, while ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate receive 25% subsidies. Sri Lanka once paid the subsidy as a percentage of the c. i. f. import price. Today, however, fixed sums are allocated for the different fertilizers. Approximately 70% of the total Government expenditure is spent on urea. Ammonium sulfate (AS) is not subsidized because it is the policy of the· Government to encourage urea usage because of its high nitrogen content and local urea manufacturing facilities. In Colombia, the price of natural gas used as a fertilizer feedstock is set at 60% of the price charged for industrial use. In India, natural gas is sold by the GovernmentGovernment to the fertilizer industry at lower prices than to other consumers. However, this rate is still higher than that paid by fertilizer manufacturers in other countries. The producer in India is subsidized to cover high gas costs, high customs and excise duties, and high capital 2 costs required to build the infrastructure provided by the GovernmentGovernment of some countries. The subsidy is administered at the manufacturer level. In Zambia, the government-controlled producer is given grants to purchase raw materials. In Indonesia, the fertilizer price to the farmer is fixed, and the subsidy becomes the difference between this price and the actual costs of P. T. Pupuk Sriwidjaja, the company responsible for fertilizer distribution. Coverage In most countries, the fertilizer price is the same for small and large farmers and all crops. In India, some states offer 25% and 33.3% additional subsidies to small and marginal farmers, respectively. The transport of fertilizer over difficult terrain receives an additional subsidy. In Nepal, high transportation costs, as well as the price of fertilizer, are subsidized. In Saudi Arabia, when the subsidy was in effect, farm-gate prices varied from area to area depending on the distance that fertilizer was transported. In Colombia, fertilizer is only subsidized for coffee. In Burkina Faso, when fertilizer was used only for cotton, the subsidy cost was financed from cotton exports. In the Ivory Coast, fertilizer made locally by the Societe Ivoirienne d'Engrais (SIVENG) is subsidized for all buyers; in addition, the remaining costs are paid for cotton and irrigated rice growers by the advisory companies and indirectly by the GovernmentGovernment. These costs include storage and transport. At one time, the Philippines had a different subsidy for priority crops such as rice, feed grains, and vegetables than cash crops. However, the system was abandoned because of the diversion of fertilizer from one crop to another. At one time in Sri Lanka, the same product was sold at different prices for use on different crops. However, Sri Lanka's experience was similar to the Philippines, and the policy was discontinued. Even though the subsidies are the same for the same product on all crops, approximately 63% of the total subsidy expenditure goes for rice because of the area grown and because urea and triple superphosphate (TSP), the major products used, are highly subsidized. Tea benefits are minimal from the subsidy because AS and local phosphate rock are used--neither of which is subsidized. In Indonesia, the fertilizer price paid by the farmer is the same for all fertilizer products. Total cost In most countries, it is difficult to calculate the total cost of the subsidy. In some countries, such as India, warehousing, credit, transportation, and raw materials, as well as the price of fertilizer, are subsidized. In other countries such as Sierra Leone, Government employees sell fertilizer, which constitutes a subsidy to the extent that these costs are not reflected in the farmers' fertilizer price. Some countries, such as Argentina, offer tax concessions that have the same effect as a subsidy. In Chile, 3 fertilizer is not directly subsidized; low-cost credit programs are indirectly subsidized. In Zambia, the government pays for domestic transportation and storage. The fertilizer subsidy in many countries constitutes 2%-8% of the total agricultural budget,· but in some countries, it is much higher. During the past 4 years, the fertilizer subsidy in Turkey has been equivalent to 74%-94% of the total agricultural budget and represents 4%-5% of the total Government budget. In Sri Lanka, the subsidy represents about 2% of the total Government budget. A Rs 1 000 million allocation has remained constant since 1981 and may continue for the next few years. Thus, each year's subsidy declines in importance with inflation and the larger Government budget. In Colombia, the fertilizer subsidy for coffee in 1983 represented 8% of the agricultural budget. In the Gambia, 2% of the agricultural budget is spent on the subsidy, and in the Ivory Coast, 5% is spent. In Zambia, subsidies represented 19% of the agriculture budget in 1984. In India, fertilizer subsidies are estimated to average $55/ metric ton of product.
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    Fertilizers for Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture
    (1981-03-12) Donald L. McCune
    Agriculture in the tropics and subtropics must become much more efficient and productive if the food, fiber, building materials, and energy needs of developing countries are to be met. Increasing amounts of suitable fertilizers must be physically and economically available to farmers in these areas if their agricultural goals are to be attained. Fertilizers and fertilizer practices that meet the specific needs of the tropics and subtropics must be tailored to the crop, soil, climate, and socioeconomic factors that prevail. With ever-increasing costs of raw materials, processing, and transportation, more attention must be given to the increased efficiency and recovery of applied nutrients. The International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC) was created in 1974 to develop new and improved fertilizers and fertilizer practices for developing countries with particular emphasis on tropical and subtropical agriculture. Nitrogen studies have focused on more efficient use of urea because urea is the primary nitrogen fertilizer available to farmers in developing countries and often the only one. The efficiency of urea can be improved through deep placement in the soil, coating of urea granules to control the urea release rate, split applications, and improved management practices. Overall nitrogen efficiency can be enhanced by supplementing chemical nitrogen fertilizers with biological nitrogen fixation, recycling organic matter, including green manures, and adequately balancing nutrients. Phosphorus deficiencies can be overcome by directly applying phosphate rock under certain conditions, using partially acidulated phosphate rock, and using thermophosphate in some tropical regions. Greater use of indigenous resources must be encouraged. Additional attention must be given to overcoming severe sulfur deficiencies and providing a balance of nutrients through improved products and practices. More emphasis must be placed on identifying and correcting secondary elements and micronutrient deficiencies in tropical agriculture. The fertilizer industry cannot serve tropical agriculture effectively by supplying primary nutrients only.
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    Foliar Fertilizer Application – Preliminary Review
    (2013-02) Bindraban, Prem S.; Wim Voogt; Chris Blok; Barbara Eveleens; Leo Marcelis
    Plant nutrient uptake primarily occurs through the roots, but leaves can absorb certain nutrients through foliar sprays or deposition on the leaf surface. This is particularly important for plants like epiphytes or aquatic species that rely heavily on leaf nutrient uptake. Foliar sprays are commonly used when soil conditions limit nutrient availability or in specific crop situations. However, the effectiveness of foliar sprays and the mechanisms of foliar nutrient uptake are poorly understood. This study aims to provide an overview of the current scientific knowledge, practical experiences, and gaps in understanding regarding foliar nutrient application. The study conducted a literature review using agricultural, soil science, and plant nutrition databases to gather recent publications and scientific data on foliar applications. Additionally, interviews with crop and soil consultants were conducted to gather information on standard practices and recommendations. The focus was on greenhouse crops, field crops, fruit crops, citrus, tropical fruits, and cereals. The findings highlight the need to better understand the physiological mechanisms of nutrient uptake through leaves and stems. This knowledge can help identify effective nutrient compositions, determine the need for coating or chelation, and maximize nutrient uptake potential through foliar application. The study also emphasizes the necessity of distinguishing between factual information and beliefs or myths surrounding foliar application to improve fertilizer use efficiency.
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    Ghana Fertilizer Value Chain Optimization Study
    (IFDC, 2019-08)
    The following Fertilizer Value Chain Optimization Study was commissioned by the Government of Ghana (GoG), represented by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) under the GoG's Ghana Fertilizer Expansion Programme (GFEP). This study includes extensive data and a thorough analysis of cost buildups, blending, and subsidies for fertilizer in Ghana. It provides guidance on how these and other aspects of the fertilizer value chain could be optimized to greatly expand the availability and use of appropriate and affordable fertilizers across the country, particularly by smallholders for food crops, which is the purpose of the MoFA fertilizer subsidy program (FSP). However, it is important to understand the current international and regional fertilizer context to analyze and recommend proper changes to the Ghana fertilizer value chain. The first aspect to understand is that, in general, international free-on-board (FOB) prices were rising (+10-30% year-to-year increase for feedstock, +18% for NPK 15-15-15) at the time of data collection for this study in September 2018, and 2019 prices were affected. There has been a boon in developing manufacturing and blending capacity across sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), particularly in West Africa. An additional 4.7 million metric tons (mt) or more of (granular) urea will be available soon from Nigeria; the majority will be exported, primarily outside the continent. Ghana enjoys competitive open market prices but has the highest fertilizer subsidy rate (50%) in West Africa, which has created incentives for smuggling to neighbouring countries, where prices are generally higher and subsidy rates are lower. Regarding the Ghanaian market, 2017 apparent consumption was estimated at 440,000 mt, a record high. However, in 2017 real consumption was much lower at approximately 350,000- 380,000 mt. Official exports are minimal, but much anecdotal evidence supports claims of large-scale smuggling of subsidized fertilizer from Ghana to neighbouring countries, especially Burkina Faso, and substantial carryover stocks. Half of the imports are NPK fertilizers, mainly compounds, and 20% are urea and raw materials for blending. The GoG Planting for Food and Jobs (PFJ) Program/MoFA FSP and the Ghana Cocoa Board (COCOBOD) control 80% of the fertilizer market to serve smallholder farmers cultivating crops/vegetables and cocoa, respectively. The Ghanaian market is mainly served by ten most well-skilled and financially capable private importers who blend and distribute through a dense network of 3,500 small, licensed agro-dealers. Regarding fertilizer cost buildup and procurement processes in Ghana, almost all fertilizers are imported through the Port of Tema, where the main importers, largest warehouses, and most blending units are located. No duties or value-added taxes (VAT) are levied on fertilizers, except for a 5% duty on compounds. Urea arriving at the Port of Tema at a free-on-board (FOB) price of U.S. $280/mt reaches Greater Accra (GA) warehouses at U.S. $395/mt bagged, a port cost of U.S. $115/mt, or +41%. This is comparable to port costs at Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and cheaper than those for Mombasa. Domestic distribution costs add 40-45% to free-on-truck (FOT) costs for imported and locally blended fertilizers. Financial costs are 38% on average and operational costs are 42%, accounting for 80% of the cost from Greater Accra storage to retail. Analysis shows that FOB price increases of raw materials increase the competitiveness of local blends over imported compounds. Investing in general (roads and railways) and dedicated infrastructure (priority berths and warehouses), and fast-tracking import procedures (permits, etc.) would ensure reduced in-country costs for fertilizers. In developing the fertilizer (blending) market, depending on which model is used, the total potential in the next five years ranges between 500,000 and 760,000 mt unless the sector is enhanced by major policy and technical improvements. Regardless, blends are expected to represent 50-60% of the total market. Ongoing GoG efforts, including accurate soil maps, trials, fertilizer formulations and recommendations validation, have yielded results that can lead to more suitable crop- and soil-specific blends. This is the first step toward fully balanced crop nutrition, which requires the inclusion of micronutrients. The 2019 PFJ introduced eight new blends for maize, rice, soybean, and cassava to be mostly blended locally. Six blending units, all located in Tema except one (GloFert), were expected to be in operation by the beginning of the 2019 planting season. All can blend new formulations in small or large batches. The installed capacity can easily serve Ghana's current, short-, and at least medium-term market requirements. If the market moves toward more balanced fertilization requiring more complex crop and soil-specific formulations, a couple of additional small blending units, requiring small investments, could have a comparative advantage if located closer to crop production belts (e.g., Brong-Ahafo and Northern regions). However, improvements in fertilizer recommendations and the increase in blended products will have little impact on smallholder farmers growing food crops unless there are major changes to improve the effectiveness of the PFJ/MoFA FSP. As noted above, its 50% subsidy is by far the highest among neighbouring countries, and indications are that many smallholder farmers are either unable to access or unable or unwilling to pay the remaining cost for subsidized fertilizer. Problems with the administration of the 2015-2018 FSPs included late solicitations, contracts, and payments to suppliers and deliveries to farmers, poor productivity/results from commodity standard formula fertilizers, smuggling, limited and inefficient/ineffective use of the private sector suppliers, difficult GoG requirements for accessing subsidized fertilizers, poor accounting/voucher/coupons systems, and fake coupons. Some of these problems were reduced in the 2019 FSP, but comprehensive changes are required if the next FSP is to be more successful. The following actions are recommended to optimize the fertilizer value chain in Ghana. Almost half the retail fertilizer prices are derived from high, in-country costs, primarily due to the lack of priority given to fertilizer imports and poor port and transportation infrastructure. Reasonable priorities and targeted investments in infrastructure important to fertilizer importation, blending, and local deliveries would lower retail prices. This could start with improving capacity at the ports for fertilizer berthing and unloading and improving roads or rail to warehouses and blending operations. Blending capacity in Ghana is already more than twice what is required, and current blending operations are operating at only 20- 25% of capacity. Therefore, the expansion of blending capacity is unnecessary. Doing so would inevitably drive local operations out of business, deterring other blenders and eliminating employment for hundreds of Ghanaian workers. The issues with the current MoFA FSP could be eliminated by modifying it to adhere to the validated Regional Fertilizer Subsidy Program Guide, which will soon be issued by the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) as a directive. The Guide is built on 13 key principles, including inclusive participation, specialization, fair competition, efficiency, better targeting, transparency, timeliness, appropriate and quality products, incentives, complementary inputs, exit strategy, sustainability, and accountability, with 36 associated activities. Adhering to these principles and combining them with the associated activities would make the Ghana FSP a "smart" program that effectively accomplishes its purpose – improving the availability and use of fertilizers by smallholder farmers in Ghana to ensure greater productivity and food security.
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    La Distribution des Engrais en Republique du Togo
    (1990-10) Kossi P. Dahoui
    L'approvisionnement en engrais qui, totalement, depend de !'importation, est en principe sous !'unique responsabilite du Service des engrais et des moyens de production (SEMP). Le SEMP a ete cree en 1976 et place sous Ia tutelle du ministere du Developpement rural. Mais entre 1984 et 1989, Ia SOTOCO a commande et distribue les engrais coton dans tout le pays, et les engrais vivriers pour les secteurs dont elle assure l'encadrement. L'analyse detaillee du systeme de distribution fait apparaitre des anomalies ou des difficultes dans les domaines suivants : L'insuffisance des moyens financiers du SEMP avec pour consequences Ia non-verification des declarations de consommation des DRDR et SRCC, des retards de passation des commandes, des reports de stocks importants d'annee en annee, des transferts d'engrais entre secteurs et un lourd passif d'impayes des DRDR vis-a-vis du SEMP. Le financement des commandes par suite de retard dans le paiement des engrais livres au detail (DRDR). Le non-controle de Ia qualite des engrais importes depuis plusieurs annees, saul ceux de Ia campagne 1989/1990. La lenteur du transport.entrainant des pertes et des avaries au port et des retards de livraison aux agriculteurs. L'insuffisance de Ia rotation des stocks dans les magasins"centraux. Le mauvais etat des magasins des secteurs (prefectures) Assoli et Doufelgou. Le non-entretien des magasins. La non-mailrise de Ia structure des prix des engrais. Les coOts et les marges de commercialisation des engrais durant Ia campagne 1989/1990 ont ete calcules par secteur (prefecture). Les prix de revient moyens ponderes pour les quatre principaux produits livres dans les magasins de zone sont les suivants : 96.961 FCFNt {331 ,93$ EU 1 ) 106.632 FCFNt {374,99 $ EU) 79.757 FCFNt {265,86 $ EU) 101.757 FCFNt {339,25 $ EU) 1 1$EU=300FCFA pour l'uree, pour le 12-22-12 +58+ 1 B, pour le 15-15-15, pour le 20-10-1 o. - 1 - Les coOts et les marges de commercialisation representent 27% du prix de revient des engrais, soit 28.053 FCFNt (93,51 $ EU). Les principaux postes de depense son! par ordre decroissant: 1) coOts de magasinage, 9.745 FCFNt (35%) 2) coOts de transport, 7.383 FCFN! (26%) 3) droits et coOts portuaires, 7.006 FCFNt (25%) 4) coOts de transferts, 1.746 FCFNt (6%). Le niveau eleva de ces coOts s'explique par le mauvais etat des pistes en saison des pluies et Ia mauvaise estimation des besoins en engrais. Des economies son! possibles et son! estimees en moyenne a 10.771 FCFNt, soil 38% des coOts de distribution actuels. L'engrais coton est vendu a credit par Ia SOTOCO a 100.000 FCFA Ia tonne (330 $ EU), exclusivement aux groupements. Tousles autres types d'engrais sont vendus au comptant a 65.000 FCFA Ia tonne (60.000 FCFA pour les achats en gros). Les agriculteurs rencontrent de plus en plus de difficultes a acheter les engrais au comptant en periode de semis (avril/mai au sud, juillet/aoOt au nord). Cette situation a amene Ia SOTOCO a mettre au point un systeme de "bon a livrer" dans sa zone d'intervention : elle vend les engrais en periode de recolte Ouillet/aoOt) et les livre Ia campagne suivante, au moment des semis. L'engrais vivrier est subventionne a 23 %, landis que l'engrais coton, ne I' est qu'a 5% . Recommendations Controler systematiquement Ia qualite des engrais importes. • Fournir des moyens (techniques et financiers) au Service des engrais afin qu'il puisse suivre rigoureusement les stocks et lancer assez tot les commandes. • Controler les declarations des DRDR concernant les engrais classes par elles com me uavarh~S11 • Exiger des DRDR le remboursement au SEMP des achats anterieurs prealablement a toute autre livraison. • Ameliorer l'etat des pistes rurales avant Ia distribution des engrais. • Construire des magasins dans les.secteurs de Bafilo et de Niamtougou. • Rentabiliser les magasins centraux de Ia DRDR de Ia Region des Plateaux et ceux de Ia Region Centrale en les mettant en location. • lnclure un budget d'entretien des magasins dans le budget de fonctionnement des DRDR et de Ia SOTOCO. • Former des encadreurs, des charges d'intrants et les chefs des divisions des Moyens de Production et de Commercialisation a Ia planification des besoins en engrais et aux operations de comptabilite. • Etendre dans tout le pays le systeme qui consiste a vendm au comptant les engrais vivriers au moment de Ia recolte, eta les livrer en saison pluvieuse. • Stimuler Ia formation des groupements d'agriculteurs. • Accorder des facilitBs de credit aux groupements capables de fonctionner comme de veritables distributeurs locaux, achetant leurs intrants au prix de gros et les revendant au prix de detail. • Vendre au prix coOlant les engrais aux societas privees n'assurant pas l'encadrement des paysans.
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    Long-Range Perspectives on Inorganic Fertilizer in Global Agriculture
    (1999-11-01) Smil, Vaclav
    This document comprehensively analyses the global dependence on inorganic fertilizers, focusing on nitrogen and phosphorus, the two macronutrients that commonly limit crop production. It traces the origins of this dependency back to the 19th century when pioneers in chemistry and agronomy laid the foundations for modern crop production science. The document highlights critical historical events, such as the discovery of Chilean nitrate shipments and the extraction of phosphates in various regions, that promoted the use of inorganic fertilizers. Despite these developments, organic fertilizers remained dominant until the beginning of the 20th century. A breakthrough occurred in 1909 with Fritz Haber's demonstration of ammonia synthesis led to the rapid commercialization of synthetic ammonia production. World War I further accelerated ammonia synthesis as it became crucial for producing nitrates used in explosives. The document emphasizes the significant role of ammonia synthesis, particularly the Haber-Bosch process, in the Green Revolution and the subsequent increase in global food production. The analysis reveals the staggering growth in global fertilizer use over time, with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium applications increasing several-fold since 1950. The document highlights the critical role of inorganic fertilizers in meeting the growing demand for food due to population growth and changing dietary patterns. It emphasizes the essential contribution of nitrogen fertilizers to global protein supply, particularly in low-income countries where over 50% of dietary protein is derived from inorganic fertilizers. The document discusses the challenges of providing sufficient food for a global population that is expected to reach between 7.3 and 10.7 billion by 2050. While population growth is projected to decline, the increasing population in low-income countries poses a significant challenge to food production. The need for further intensification of farming, particularly in Asia and Africa, will drive a continued reliance on inorganic fertilizers to meet nutritional demands.
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    Methodology to Assess the Impact of Fertilizer Strategies on Planetary Boundaries
    (2013-03) Conijn, J.G; F.J. de Ruijter; J.J. Schröder; Bindraban, Prem S.
    Fertilizers affect plant growth fundamentally and are essential to feed the world's population. Yet, fertilizer use also causes eutrophication and greenhouse gas emissions Overuse will aggravate these side effects, but underuse leads to the agro-ecosystem's degradation, poverty and hunger. Nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers have been identified as one of the driving forces that push the Earth from its stable geological era of the Holocene into the Anthropocene with unknown implications for life on Earth. Curtailing nutrient losses will have far-reaching implications on the Earth's ecosystem and human health and well-being. This report describes a methodology to quantitatively link global N and P cycles to four other global change drivers: land-system change, freshwater use, climate change and stratospheric ozone depletion. This will allow the assessment of the impact of fertilizer interventions on these drivers revealing synergies and trade-offs concerning food security and the environment.
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    Nanoscale Micronutrients Suppress Disease
    (2015-02) Christian O. Dimkpa; Alia Servin; Wade H. Elmer; Arnab Mukherjee; Helmi Hamdi; Jason C. White; Roberto de la Torre-Roche
    Nanotechnology has experienced exponential growth in the past decade, revolutionizing multiple industries and showing immense market potential. With a projected market value of $3 trillion by 2020, nanotechnology has impacted diverse sectors, including healthcare, electronics, cosmetics, and agriculture. Nanotechnology in agriculture holds great promise for improving food production, food security, and food safety worldwide. This review provides an overview of the applications of nanotechnology in agriculture, focusing on nanofertilizers, nanopesticides, and nanosensors for soil quality and plant health monitoring. Using nanomaterials in agriculture aims to enhance the efficiency and sustainability of agricultural practices by reducing input requirements and minimizing waste. Patent applications for nanopesticides alone exceeded 3,000 in 2011. Various nanomaterial-based products have been developed, as listed in Table 1. These approaches aim to improve crop yield by suppressing crop diseases and potentially providing essential micronutrients necessary for host defense. Nanoscale amendments, including metals, metal oxides, and carbon-based materials, have shown potential for disease suppression and yield enhancement. Moreover, plant nutrition plays a crucial role in disease resistance, with micronutrients activating defense enzymes and maintaining plant health. However, challenges exist in ensuring sufficient nutrient availability in slightly acidic to neutral soils and improving the translocation of micronutrients within plants. Elements such as aluminium (Al) and silicon (Si) have shown potential for disease control and activating defense mechanisms, but their limited availability and translocation within plants limit their efficacy. Nanomaterials offer new possibilities by enhancing nutrient availability and translocation. Nanoscale micronutrient formulations can provide targeted and effective nutrition-based manipulation of host resistance, enhancing disease suppression and crop productivity. The synthesis of nanomaterials is a critical aspect of nanotechnology. Nanomaterials exhibit unique properties influenced by their morphology, such as size, shape, and crystalline phase. Various chemical and physical methods have been developed for their synthesis, with titanium dioxide (TiO2) being the most produced nanomaterial. Advancements in nanomaterial synthesis continue to drive the field forward, offering new opportunities for tailored applications in agriculture.