Fertilizer Reports

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Fertilizers for Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture
(1981-03-12) Donald L. McCune
Agriculture in the tropics and subtropics must become much more efficient and productive if the food, fiber, building materials, and energy needs of developing countries are to be met. Increasing amounts of suitable fertilizers must be physically and economically available to farmers in these areas if their agricultural goals are to be attained. Fertilizers and fertilizer practices that meet the specific needs of the tropics and subtropics must be tailored to the crop, soil, climate, and socioeconomic factors that prevail. With ever-increasing costs of raw materials, processing, and transportation, more attention must be given to the increased efficiency and recovery of applied nutrients. The International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC) was created in 1974 to develop new and improved fertilizers and fertilizer practices for developing countries with particular emphasis on tropical and subtropical agriculture. Nitrogen studies have focused on more efficient use of urea because urea is the primary nitrogen fertilizer available to farmers in developing countries and often the only one. The efficiency of urea can be improved through deep placement in the soil, coating of urea granules to control the urea release rate, split applications, and improved management practices. Overall nitrogen efficiency can be enhanced by supplementing chemical nitrogen fertilizers with biological nitrogen fixation, recycling organic matter, including green manures, and adequately balancing nutrients. Phosphorus deficiencies can be overcome by directly applying phosphate rock under certain conditions, using partially acidulated phosphate rock, and using thermophosphate in some tropical regions. Greater use of indigenous resources must be encouraged. Additional attention must be given to overcoming severe sulfur deficiencies and providing a balance of nutrients through improved products and practices. More emphasis must be placed on identifying and correcting secondary elements and micronutrient deficiencies in tropical agriculture. The fertilizer industry cannot serve tropical agriculture effectively by supplying primary nutrients only.
Fertilizer Subsidies in Developing Countries
(1984-12)
The purpose of a fertilizer subsidy in most countries is to encourage the farmer to use more fertilizer, thereby increasing agricultural production. In Indonesia, the fertilizer subsidy has been used as an important input in programs to attain self-sufficiency in producing rice and other food crops. Due to these programs, fertilizer consumption in Indonesia has increased at an annual rate of 16% during the past 15 years. In Burkina Faso, fertilizers were subsidized as a short-term measure, primarily for cotton, but the subsidies were continued because of large food deficits. Argentina is using fertilizers to increase foreign exchange earnings by producing more grain. In the Ivory Coast, fertilizer is subsidized to increase cotton production, the major cash crop, and to reduce rice imports, which have increased as the population has migrated to the cities. In Gambia, groundnut production is the major source of foreign exchange earnings, and fertilizers have been subsidized to promote groundnut production. In Colombia, fertilizer is subsidized to promote exports by encouraging farmers to use modern coffee varieties. The subsidy influences coffee production, and the percentage of the subsidized fertilizer depends on the country's coffee stocks and the world supply /demand situation. In Zambia, subsidies have been used to reduce food imports and improve the standard of living. How Subsidies are Set Many countries set the fertilizer price by using the subsidy mechanism. Several countries, including India, Indonesia, Ivory Coast, Nepal, the Philippines, Turkey, and Venezuela, also set crop prices. Chile, which has no subsidy, sets minimum crop prices related to international market prices. There does not seem to be a fixed fertilizer: crop price ratio that countries try to achieve in setting the fertilizer subsidy or crop and fertilizer price relationships. The levels of crop and fertilizer prices are generally political decisions made at high levels of government and based on the country's finances and present food situation, as well as its goals and trade policies. Countries try to set crop: fertilizer price relationships to encourage fertilizer use. In Sierra Leone, fertilizer prices are set by a cabinet decision. In Zambia, recommendations are made by the National Agricultural Marketing Board in conjunction with the Department of Agriculture and approved by the Cabinet. Indonesia tries to set crop and fertilizer prices to achieve a ratio of 2. 0. In India, price subsidies are used on grain sales through government-controlled fair price shops. In Turkey, wheat is the major food crop. The wheat: 1 fertilizer price ratio is set to encourage wheat farmers to use fertilizer. Other prices are set about that of wheat. In most countries, the subsidy is set for 1 year. In Colombia, the government sets the fertilizer price every 3 months to reflect changes in inflation or currency devaluations. The fertilizer subsidy in Colombia is changed whenever the fertilizer price is changed. Prices in Sierra Leone changed twice in 1984. Fertilizer prices in Indonesia remained constant from 1977 to November 1982 and have not changed. In India, fertilizer prices have been in effect since June 1983. This is usually done annually in countries such as India, where the government sets crop prices. In Colombia, minimum crop prices are changed twice per year. Prices are usually set immediately preceding the cropping season. However, in Venezuela, prices for many crops have been in effect since 1980. Prices of maize were set in 1981 and those of rice in 1982. Amount of Subsidy Burkina Faso subsidizes about 40% of the actual fertilizer cost, but this amount is being reduced yearly. The new subsidy in Venezuela includes a reduction of 50% in the selling price of each fertilizer product and an additional adjustment according to the new exchange rate for imported raw materials. Before being abolished in Saudi Arabia, the fertilizer subsidy was set at 50% of the ex-factory or the c. i. f. import price. When the subsidy was in effect in the Philippines, urea was subsidized at about 30% of the selling price. The subsidy for locally produced compounds such as 14-14-14 was about twice the rate of the subsidy on imported products. In Gambia, 61% of the urea price, 62% of the diammonium phosphate (DAP) price, and 96% of the single superphosphate (SSP) price are subsidized. In Sri Lanka, urea receives a subsidy of 56%, while mono ammonium phosphate (MOP) receives a subsidy of only 33%. In Zambia, where urea is imported, it receives less than a 1% subsidy, while ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate receive 25% subsidies. Sri Lanka once paid the subsidy as a percentage of the c. i. f. import price. Today, however, fixed sums are allocated for the different fertilizers. Approximately 70% of the total Government expenditure is spent on urea. Ammonium sulfate (AS) is not subsidized because it is the policy of the· Government to encourage urea usage because of its high nitrogen content and local urea manufacturing facilities. In Colombia, the price of natural gas used as a fertilizer feedstock is set at 60% of the price charged for industrial use. In India, natural gas is sold by the GovernmentGovernment to the fertilizer industry at lower prices than to other consumers. However, this rate is still higher than that paid by fertilizer manufacturers in other countries. The producer in India is subsidized to cover high gas costs, high customs and excise duties, and high capital 2 costs required to build the infrastructure provided by the GovernmentGovernment of some countries. The subsidy is administered at the manufacturer level. In Zambia, the government-controlled producer is given grants to purchase raw materials. In Indonesia, the fertilizer price to the farmer is fixed, and the subsidy becomes the difference between this price and the actual costs of P. T. Pupuk Sriwidjaja, the company responsible for fertilizer distribution. Coverage In most countries, the fertilizer price is the same for small and large farmers and all crops. In India, some states offer 25% and 33.3% additional subsidies to small and marginal farmers, respectively. The transport of fertilizer over difficult terrain receives an additional subsidy. In Nepal, high transportation costs, as well as the price of fertilizer, are subsidized. In Saudi Arabia, when the subsidy was in effect, farm-gate prices varied from area to area depending on the distance that fertilizer was transported. In Colombia, fertilizer is only subsidized for coffee. In Burkina Faso, when fertilizer was used only for cotton, the subsidy cost was financed from cotton exports. In the Ivory Coast, fertilizer made locally by the Societe Ivoirienne d'Engrais (SIVENG) is subsidized for all buyers; in addition, the remaining costs are paid for cotton and irrigated rice growers by the advisory companies and indirectly by the GovernmentGovernment. These costs include storage and transport. At one time, the Philippines had a different subsidy for priority crops such as rice, feed grains, and vegetables than cash crops. However, the system was abandoned because of the diversion of fertilizer from one crop to another. At one time in Sri Lanka, the same product was sold at different prices for use on different crops. However, Sri Lanka's experience was similar to the Philippines, and the policy was discontinued. Even though the subsidies are the same for the same product on all crops, approximately 63% of the total subsidy expenditure goes for rice because of the area grown and because urea and triple superphosphate (TSP), the major products used, are highly subsidized. Tea benefits are minimal from the subsidy because AS and local phosphate rock are used--neither of which is subsidized. In Indonesia, the fertilizer price paid by the farmer is the same for all fertilizer products. Total cost In most countries, it is difficult to calculate the total cost of the subsidy. In some countries, such as India, warehousing, credit, transportation, and raw materials, as well as the price of fertilizer, are subsidized. In other countries such as Sierra Leone, Government employees sell fertilizer, which constitutes a subsidy to the extent that these costs are not reflected in the farmers' fertilizer price. Some countries, such as Argentina, offer tax concessions that have the same effect as a subsidy. In Chile, 3 fertilizer is not directly subsidized; low-cost credit programs are indirectly subsidized. In Zambia, the government pays for domestic transportation and storage. The fertilizer subsidy in many countries constitutes 2%-8% of the total agricultural budget,· but in some countries, it is much higher. During the past 4 years, the fertilizer subsidy in Turkey has been equivalent to 74%-94% of the total agricultural budget and represents 4%-5% of the total Government budget. In Sri Lanka, the subsidy represents about 2% of the total Government budget. A Rs 1 000 million allocation has remained constant since 1981 and may continue for the next few years. Thus, each year's subsidy declines in importance with inflation and the larger Government budget. In Colombia, the fertilizer subsidy for coffee in 1983 represented 8% of the agricultural budget. In the Gambia, 2% of the agricultural budget is spent on the subsidy, and in the Ivory Coast, 5% is spent. In Zambia, subsidies represented 19% of the agriculture budget in 1984. In India, fertilizer subsidies are estimated to average $55/ metric ton of product.
A Seeding Program for Fertilizer Marketing
(1984-12) IFDC
Fertilizer marketing seeding programs have been widely used in the fertilizer industry for several decades. However, there is still no standard understanding or definition of the term. This lack of clarity often leads to interchangeable terms such as seeding program, pilot program, trial marketing, marketing startup, and test marketing. To be effective, fertilizer marketing seeding programs must be properly designed and implemented, tailored to achieve specific goals. A fertilizer marketing seeding program is a planned marketing activity aimed at introducing a new product, technology, procedure, or a combination of these on a limited basis into a market. The program allows for gathering information and gaining experience to refine operational procedures before a full-scale marketing operation. It involves testing proven concepts in a new area and is usually conducted 1 to 3 years before the full-scale marketing effort. The program's limitations are based on geography and product quantity. The selected geographic area should represent the fertilizer market to be covered later. The quantity limitation refers to the product offered for sale in the program, typically a small percentage of the quantity to be sold in a full-scale marketing program.It is important to distinguish a yielding variety of crops. The key is to tailor the seeding program to the specific goals and needs of the target market. Seeding programs play a crucial role in the fertilizer industry by providing an opportunity to introduce new products, technologies, procedures, or combinations thereof in a controlled and limited manner. The information and experiences gathered during the program help refine operational procedures, adjust concepts, and gain valuable insights before implementing a full-scale marketing operation. Geographical and product quantity limitations are important considerations in designing a seeding program. The selected area should represent the target fertilizer market and be large enough to provide valid information while still being manageable. The quantity of product offered should be a percentage of what is planned for a full-scale marketing program. It is essential to distinguish a seeding program from premarket testing. Before considering its inclusion in a seeding program, premarket testing focuses on basic research activities, such as assessing product suitability, performance, and economics. The seeding program is a trial phase to validate concepts and gain further knowledge. The goals of a fertilizer seeding program can vary but generally include introducing unfamiliar fertilizers or technologies to farmers, creating brand identity and loyalty, implementing new farming practices, refining marketing systems and components, identifying constraints to fertilizer use and overcoming them, and determining institutional support required for an effective marketing system. A well-planned seeding program follows a miniaturized version of a larger fertilizer marketing plan. It comprises various components such as product and supply planning, sales planning, agronomic planning, advertising and sales promotion planning, market research planning, distribution planning, pricing planning, and personnel development planning. Each component has specific objectives and activities to achieve them, ensuring a balanced approach to product, price, place, and promotion. Planning and phasing are critical aspects of a seeding program. The timeline and activities may vary depending on the program's objectives and market context. However, a typical program spans multiple years. It involves determining objectives, selecting target areas, planning activities, training staff, arranging products and pricing policies, budgeting, monitoring procedures, and adjusting program elements based on results. To ensure the success of a seeding program, precautions must be taken to avoid common pitfalls. These include clearly defining program objectives, obtaining management approval and support, careful planning before initiation, securing necessary institutional and government support, integrating the program within a larger marketing plan, allowing sufficient time for desired results, establishing monitoring mechanisms, maintaining effective communication, and ensuring staff motivation and dedication.Effective program management is crucial for the success of a seeding program. The manager must meticulously oversee all aspects, ensuring the program is designed to overcome challenges, coordinating tasks and resources, monitoring performance, and making necessary adjustments. Consistency in management style between the seeding program and the larger marketing effort is essential for accurate comparative results.Fertilizer seeding programs are not limited to specific countries or stages of agricultural development. They can be implemented in various contexts, including developing and developed agricultural sectors. The key is to adapt the program to the specific needs and objectives of the target market, whether it involves introducing new fertilizers, technologies, or practices or refining existing marketing systems. Therefore, fertilizer seeding programs are valuable tools in the fertilizer industry for introducing new products, technologies, and practices. When properly designed and implemented, they can lead to successful market penetration and improved agricultural outcomes. However, careful planning, goal setting, program management, and evaluation are necessary to maximize the benefits of seeding programs and ensure their alignment with broader marketing strategies.
La Distribution des Engrais en Republique du Togo
(1990-10) Kossi P. Dahoui
L'approvisionnement en engrais qui, totalement, depend de !'importation, est en principe sous !'unique responsabilite du Service des engrais et des moyens de production (SEMP). Le SEMP a ete cree en 1976 et place sous Ia tutelle du ministere du Developpement rural. Mais entre 1984 et 1989, Ia SOTOCO a commande et distribue les engrais coton dans tout le pays, et les engrais vivriers pour les secteurs dont elle assure l'encadrement. L'analyse detaillee du systeme de distribution fait apparaitre des anomalies ou des difficultes dans les domaines suivants : L'insuffisance des moyens financiers du SEMP avec pour consequences Ia non-verification des declarations de consommation des DRDR et SRCC, des retards de passation des commandes, des reports de stocks importants d'annee en annee, des transferts d'engrais entre secteurs et un lourd passif d'impayes des DRDR vis-a-vis du SEMP. Le financement des commandes par suite de retard dans le paiement des engrais livres au detail (DRDR). Le non-controle de Ia qualite des engrais importes depuis plusieurs annees, saul ceux de Ia campagne 1989/1990. La lenteur du transport.entrainant des pertes et des avaries au port et des retards de livraison aux agriculteurs. L'insuffisance de Ia rotation des stocks dans les magasins"centraux. Le mauvais etat des magasins des secteurs (prefectures) Assoli et Doufelgou. Le non-entretien des magasins. La non-mailrise de Ia structure des prix des engrais. Les coOts et les marges de commercialisation des engrais durant Ia campagne 1989/1990 ont ete calcules par secteur (prefecture). Les prix de revient moyens ponderes pour les quatre principaux produits livres dans les magasins de zone sont les suivants : 96.961 FCFNt {331 ,93$ EU 1 ) 106.632 FCFNt {374,99 $ EU) 79.757 FCFNt {265,86 $ EU) 101.757 FCFNt {339,25 $ EU) 1 1$EU=300FCFA pour l'uree, pour le 12-22-12 +58+ 1 B, pour le 15-15-15, pour le 20-10-1 o. - 1 - Les coOts et les marges de commercialisation representent 27% du prix de revient des engrais, soit 28.053 FCFNt (93,51 $ EU). Les principaux postes de depense son! par ordre decroissant: 1) coOts de magasinage, 9.745 FCFNt (35%) 2) coOts de transport, 7.383 FCFN! (26%) 3) droits et coOts portuaires, 7.006 FCFNt (25%) 4) coOts de transferts, 1.746 FCFNt (6%). Le niveau eleva de ces coOts s'explique par le mauvais etat des pistes en saison des pluies et Ia mauvaise estimation des besoins en engrais. Des economies son! possibles et son! estimees en moyenne a 10.771 FCFNt, soil 38% des coOts de distribution actuels. L'engrais coton est vendu a credit par Ia SOTOCO a 100.000 FCFA Ia tonne (330 $ EU), exclusivement aux groupements. Tousles autres types d'engrais sont vendus au comptant a 65.000 FCFA Ia tonne (60.000 FCFA pour les achats en gros). Les agriculteurs rencontrent de plus en plus de difficultes a acheter les engrais au comptant en periode de semis (avril/mai au sud, juillet/aoOt au nord). Cette situation a amene Ia SOTOCO a mettre au point un systeme de "bon a livrer" dans sa zone d'intervention : elle vend les engrais en periode de recolte Ouillet/aoOt) et les livre Ia campagne suivante, au moment des semis. L'engrais vivrier est subventionne a 23 %, landis que l'engrais coton, ne I' est qu'a 5% . Recommendations Controler systematiquement Ia qualite des engrais importes. • Fournir des moyens (techniques et financiers) au Service des engrais afin qu'il puisse suivre rigoureusement les stocks et lancer assez tot les commandes. • Controler les declarations des DRDR concernant les engrais classes par elles com me uavarh~S11 • Exiger des DRDR le remboursement au SEMP des achats anterieurs prealablement a toute autre livraison. • Ameliorer l'etat des pistes rurales avant Ia distribution des engrais. • Construire des magasins dans les.secteurs de Bafilo et de Niamtougou. • Rentabiliser les magasins centraux de Ia DRDR de Ia Region des Plateaux et ceux de Ia Region Centrale en les mettant en location. • lnclure un budget d'entretien des magasins dans le budget de fonctionnement des DRDR et de Ia SOTOCO. • Former des encadreurs, des charges d'intrants et les chefs des divisions des Moyens de Production et de Commercialisation a Ia planification des besoins en engrais et aux operations de comptabilite. • Etendre dans tout le pays le systeme qui consiste a vendm au comptant les engrais vivriers au moment de Ia recolte, eta les livrer en saison pluvieuse. • Stimuler Ia formation des groupements d'agriculteurs. • Accorder des facilitBs de credit aux groupements capables de fonctionner comme de veritables distributeurs locaux, achetant leurs intrants au prix de gros et les revendant au prix de detail. • Vendre au prix coOlant les engrais aux societas privees n'assurant pas l'encadrement des paysans.
Restoring and Maintaining the Productivity of West African Soils: Key to Sustainable Development
(1996-02) IFDC
The Earth has become a Global Village, and West Africa is a slum in a dismal state of disrepair. More especially the all-important agricultural sector - the engine of economic growth - is going through unprecedented hard times. Locally produced cash crops, the main revenue earner for most governments, face increased competition from other producing regions where there have been substantial productivity increases and greater production efficiency. In some instances, consumer nations have found substitutes. Yields of food crops have steadily declined; at the same time, the number of mouths to feed is increasing more rapidly than at any other time in history. Market incentives for farmers are few because cheap imports of rice, wheat, and meat have become staples for the urban wage earners. Much-needed structural adjustment programs have had their downside effects on agriculture as the ensuing higher prices of external inputs such as inorganic fertilizers have discouraged farmers and caused them to avoid fertilizer use. Because of increased demographic pressure and decreasing yields, established practices for the restoration and maintenance of soil fertility as is typical of shifting cultivation have given way to exploitative continuous cropping. As farmers' yields decrease, area expansion is the only means available to them to increase the absolute amounts of food produced. Marginal lands are thus brought under cultivation. Deforestation, uncontrolled erosion, loss of biodiversity and overstocking continue to destroy an already fragile ecosystem while investments to maintain the productive capacity of the soil, i.e., its nutrient stocks, are virtually nonexistent. The net result is that more and more of the rural population is being drawn into the heart of the poverty spiral. For these people, the pains from the population, poverty, and environment nexus are all too real. The above scenario has to be viewed in the context of a region where the inherent fertility of the soils is very low. Increased cropping intensity without replacing the nutrients that the crops remove annually has resulted in the mining of this small pool of native nutrients. Meanwhile, soil degradation, both physically and chemically, has become irreversible in many ecosystems because the soil resilience is very limited. For the next 10-20 years, West African governments and the international community cannot afford a "business-as-usual" attitude. Sustainable development, however, calls for a clear assessment of the constraints to agricultural growth and the development and implementation of a number of interventions. This must be done soon and conscientiously. Time is not on the side of the West African people. The implementation of the interventions must be led by national governments, using the ingenuity of a properly sensitized farming community. Inevitably, the implementation also requires considerable institutional, scientific, and financial support from the international banking and donor community. Technologies Over the past fifty or more years, technologies to improve the productive capacity of West African soils have been generated. Unfortunately, these technologies have not been transferred to or implemented by the intended beneficiaries. The known technologies for restoring soil fertility can be grouped as follows: • Increased and more efficient use of mineral fertilizers. • Exploitation and use of locally available soil amendments such as phosphate rocks, lime, and dolomites. • Maximum recycling of organic products, both from within and from outside the farm (crop residues, animal manure, urban refuse, compost, etc.). • "Improved" land use systems, based on both indigenous and science-based technologies (rotation in addition to intercropping, agroforestry and related tree-based farming systems, increased use of species that can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere, alternatives to slash-and-burn so that fallows can be improved, etc.). • Effective methods to control wind and water erosion, tailored to indigenous knowledge and using local biological and physical resources. • The concept of "integrated nutrient management," which translates into the use of most efficient and attractive combination of previously known technologies, tailored to local farming systems and to specific agroecological niches that play a role at different system levels: regional (subhumid vs. semiarid), district (peri-urban vs. rural), watershed (rainfed uplands vs. valley bottoms), and farm (home garden vs. plots farther away). Constraints Agriculture can only be persistent and sustainable when the technologies are developed with the participation of the end users (and taking into consideration these clients' needs, means, and circumstances). As much as possible, local institutions should lead the way but with adequate support from external research and development institutions. Sustainability is also enhanced by the existence of an enabling policy environment. Constraints that impinge on one or more of the technologies previously listed are as follows: • Mineral fertilizer use is hampered by unavailability of capital and credit, by national and international disincentives, by poor marketing and pricing, and by gender bias. • Use of much cheaper soil amendments is hampered by lack of awareness and misconceptions on the returns to investment in soil fertility restoration using local resources, by low availability of identified local resources, and by lack of institutional support and extension. • Use of organic inputs is limited mainly by lack of labor and sheer relative scarcity as a result of multiple uses. • Non-adoption of "improved" land-use systems is exacerbated by limited knowledge on the need to integrate land use systems into farming systems and thus increase farmers' awareness and perception of the benefits, while specifically highlighting the role of women; by failure to recognize that tree systems and such other long-term investment packages require clear-cut land tenure arrangements. • Labor availability, perceived high investment cost, reluctance to accept a long payback period, and lack of clear-cut land tenure arrangements are the major constraints to adoption of soil conservation measures. • The constraints to integrated nutrient management are combinations of aforementioned constraints; major constraints at this time are limited awareness and perception by researchers, extension workers and (to a lesser extent) farmers, and the open questions that are still to be answered regarding the agronomic performance of integrated nutrient management practices, i.e., is the whole greater than the sum of its parts? Interventions The nature of the technology-constraint combinations has led to structuring of intervention at three levels, i.e., supranational and regional (West Africa), national and district, and village and farm. The major interventions proposed at the different operational levels are summarized below: Supranational and Regional Level • Revisiting impacts of Structural Adjustment Programs (SAP) and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in view of the need for positive incentives on fertilizer use and agricultural production. • Raising awareness and arriving at a general consensus regarding the use of phosphate rock as a capital investment to enrich the phosphorus pool in West African soils (The World Bank Initiative in this respect is to be lauded). • Developing and promoting economic valuation and discounting of externalities (productivity loss by not implementing anti-erosion policies, failure to consider the residual effect of phosphate rock, export of nutrients to other regions, impact of practices on greenhouse effect, and global climate change). • Raising awareness of the threat of gross migration and the necessity for urgent action to promote survival through, e.g., worldwide funding of a "Marshall Plan" for West Africa. • Promoting meaningful interdisciplinarity in research and development efforts through broadbased ecoregional consortia. • Fostering regional collaboration on all issues where economies of scale would prove beneficial (e.g., common procurement of fertilizers; coordinated production and distribution of phosphate rocks). • Developing and implementing agricultural market development policies, including promotion of crop diversification, improvement of domestic and export market structures, and market information. • Formulating and implementing policy directed at creating economically viable off-farm employment in rural areas (e.g., processing units for oil and karite, small-scale manufacturing). • Implementing and coordinating large-scale soil conservation investment schemes that integrate erection of structures with systems to improve soil fertility (e.g., use of phosphate rock in districts where stone lines have been erected). National and District level • Establishing, at a high political level, Natural Resource or Soil Fertility Management Units to design and implement strategies for the effective development and management of natural resources with special attention to soil fertility restoration and maintenance. • Reinforcing national agricultural research and extension systems and encouraging collaboration with all members of the farming community, including nongovernmental organizations. • Creating an "enabling environment" that promotes agricultural growth: action on credit schemes, post-harvest operations that add value to farm output, output marketing schemes including, where necessary, price guarantee schemes, clear-cut land tenure arrangements, support to institutional and physical infrastructure, fine-tuning fertilizer recommendations for specific cropsoil combinations, and other nonfinancial incentives. • Developing an inventory of natural resources available in the country for use in increasing soil fertility. • Developing policies that reward the maximum use of organic inputs for increased biomass production and that optimize the use of external inputs in the rural and peri-urban sector. Village and Farm level • Promoting a participatory approach to technology generation and validation as the only way to achieve greater adoption. • Promoting financial, technical, and moral support to women's groups. • Promoting "nutrient-saving" and "nutrient-adding" as opposed to "nutrient mining" technologies, where appropriate, while sensitizing farmers to the advantages accruing from adoption of these technologies (e.g., use of energy-saving stoves, kraaling on fields rather than in stables, N-fixing fodder species to be mixed with phosphate rocks through composting, planted stone bunds, fencing off fallows periodically}. • Promoting fertility buildup and intensified production on land that is of high potential such as land in close proximity to homestead and compost pit (relatively highly fertile) and where labor and water are available, in order to give land without such advantages a recuperative period. The Way Forward: The Role of the International Fertilizer Development Center-Africa Since its inception in 1987, the Togo-based Africa Division of the International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC-Africa} has gained most valuable knowledge on soil fertility and fertilizer use within West Africa. IFDC-Africa has established two networks on fertilizer trade and X marketing (African Fertilizer Trade, Marketing and Information Network, AFTMIN) and on soil fertility management (West African Fertilizer Management and Evaluation Network, WAFMEN) to anchor its two programs- Policy Reform, Market Research and Development Program and Watershed Management Program. IFDC-Africa has conducted detailed fertilizer sector studies in Benin, Togo, Burkina Faso, Niger, Ghana, and Mali. These studies address issues related to fertilizer demand, procurement, and domestic marketing. Complementary studies have also been conducted in Ghana and Mali on such policy issues as food security and fertilizer use, agroeconomic potential of fertilizer use, and pricing and macro-economic policy environments. These detailed studies conclude with recommendations for all players in the national fertilizer sector. Program scientists conduct follow-up activities to help ensure that policymakers act upon these recommendations. In 1994 the Federal Government of Nigeria commissioned IFDC to design a program for the liberalization of the fertilizer sector. Recently, IFDC-Africa completed a study on Ghana titled "Ghana Fertilizer Privatization Scheme: Private Sector Roles and Public Sector Responsibilities in Meeting Needs of Farmers." In November 1994 IFDC-Africa organized a seminar on the use of locally occurring phosphate rocks for soil fertility improvement in West Africa; the proceedings of this seminar have been published. This accumulated knowledge is valuable and is beginning to have an impact on the "character" of agriculture in the respective countries. It is also apparent that an action-oriented approach by governments to tackle the problems of degraded soils, deforestation leading to loss of biodiversity and desertification, and stagnant or declining yields has proved elusive. IFDC-Africa is firmly convinced that the restoration of soil fertility is key to West Africa's resurrection and is prepared to cooperate with West African governments to design and implement programs that would remove the aforementioned constraints and pave the way to sustainable development.
Long-Range Perspectives on Inorganic Fertilizer in Global Agriculture
(1999-11-01) Smil, Vaclav
This document comprehensively analyses the global dependence on inorganic fertilizers, focusing on nitrogen and phosphorus, the two macronutrients that commonly limit crop production. It traces the origins of this dependency back to the 19th century when pioneers in chemistry and agronomy laid the foundations for modern crop production science. The document highlights critical historical events, such as the discovery of Chilean nitrate shipments and the extraction of phosphates in various regions, that promoted the use of inorganic fertilizers. Despite these developments, organic fertilizers remained dominant until the beginning of the 20th century. A breakthrough occurred in 1909 with Fritz Haber's demonstration of ammonia synthesis led to the rapid commercialization of synthetic ammonia production. World War I further accelerated ammonia synthesis as it became crucial for producing nitrates used in explosives. The document emphasizes the significant role of ammonia synthesis, particularly the Haber-Bosch process, in the Green Revolution and the subsequent increase in global food production. The analysis reveals the staggering growth in global fertilizer use over time, with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium applications increasing several-fold since 1950. The document highlights the critical role of inorganic fertilizers in meeting the growing demand for food due to population growth and changing dietary patterns. It emphasizes the essential contribution of nitrogen fertilizers to global protein supply, particularly in low-income countries where over 50% of dietary protein is derived from inorganic fertilizers. The document discusses the challenges of providing sufficient food for a global population that is expected to reach between 7.3 and 10.7 billion by 2050. While population growth is projected to decline, the increasing population in low-income countries poses a significant challenge to food production. The need for further intensification of farming, particularly in Asia and Africa, will drive a continued reliance on inorganic fertilizers to meet nutritional demands.
Development and Dissemination of Sustainable Integrated Soil Fertility Management Practices for Smallholder Farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa
(2005-12) IFDC
The Development and Dissemination of Sustainable and Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) Practices for Smallholder Farms in Sub-Saharan Africa were implemented by IFDC and TSBF of the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and partners at key sites in seven West African countries. The key sites in West Africa were Benin, Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Togo, and Ghana, and Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe were key sites in Southern Africa. The ISFM Framework Project started in May 2001 and ended in December 2004. At all sites, activities were based on annual action plans developed with partners during annual workshops. Action plans typically included training, research, public awareness, and up/out scaling activities. Partners included seven IFAD investment programs, thirteen national research institutes and universities, fifteen non-governmental organizations (NGOs), five financial institutions, and ten national extension agencies. Two networks were active in coordinating the research and extension efforts—the Agricultural Intensification in Sub-Saharan Africa (AISSA) network established with financial backing from this project and convened by IFDC and the African Network for Soil Biology and Fertility (AfNet) convened by TSBF-CIAT. Although biased toward the latter, the project’s logical framework encompassed the entire research-to-development continuum from process research to adaptive research and dissemination. At the process level, the project generated an improved understanding of interactions between organic inputs and mineral fertilizers and their impact on soil organic matter buildup and nutrient supply. More insight was also gained into farmers’ priorities regarding soil fertility management and social and gender differences among farmers regarding access and management of soil resources. The key challenge at the action research level was combining local knowledge of socio-economic and biophysical determinants of yield and soil quality with scientific knowledge of agroecological principles to develop practical and feasible technologies to boost farm production and maintain or improve soil fertility. Many technological options (two to three options per site) were evaluated in three main farming systems, i.e., the agro-pastoral millet/sorghum system, the maize-mixed system, and the irrigated rice-based system. In low-input systems, most evaluated technologies were based on combining organic inputs and judicious use of mineral fertilizers. Organic inputs included household waste, cattle manure, and straw. Other technological options tested with farmers focused on introducing N-fixing legumes in farming systems, such as mucuna, soybean, and cowpea. Fertilizer-N recovery rates were doubled in most cases (from a low 0.10–0.15 kg kg1 to 0.4 kg kg1 for sorghum). Yields were increased from 0.4 to 0.7 t ha1 to 2 to 2.7 for sorghum and from 0.8 t ha1 to 3 to 4 t ha1 for maize. In the Sahel and Sudano-savanna zone, water conservation technologies were combined with improved soil fertility management (including precision placement of microdoses of mineral fertilizer) to achieve higher and more sustainable yields. In high-input rice-based systems, the focus was on site specific nutrient management and improved crop management in general. Compared with existing recommendations, yield gains of 0.15 to 0.55 t ha1 were obtained with site-specific approaches at equal costs leading to increased gross returns above fertilizer costs by an average of U.S. $140 per season compared with both farmers’ practice and existing recommendations. The research results were used to develop and fine-tune several decision support tools that can be used to conduct ex-ante impact analyses of promising technologies. The National Agricultural Research and Extension Systems (NARES) and NGO staff involved in the project were trained in participatory learning and action-research approaches emphasizing agroecological principles rather than technology prescriptions. Attention was also paid to the development of institutional arrangements to facilitate the adoption of the technological options, such as improved access to mineral fertilizer and credit, through collaboration with two other IFDC projects funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA). These efforts culminated in the development the Competitive Agricultural Systems and Enterprises (CASE) approach. CASE combines participatory development of improved natural resource management technologies with coordinated efforts to experiment and extend alternative institutional arrangements that link farmers with input dealers, micro-finance, and traders. CASE also strengthens the innovative capacities of the various stakeholders involved. The CASE approach was evaluated with partners within the AISSA network. As a result of the project, 40 scientific papers were published or submitted to journals; four PhD theses and numerous M.S. theses were also written. Seven technical advisory notes (TANs) were derived from the research data. The project summarized the agroecological principles of ISFM in a manual; it also contributed to a facilitators’ manual, a technical manual for inland valley rice systems, and an ISFM manual published by an NGO (VeCO). The project actively worked with partners within IFAD-funded investment programs: • The former rural development project in southern Togo (PODV). • The South-West Development Project. • The special program for soil and water conservation and agro-forestry in Burkina Faso. • The Smallholder Floodplains Development Program, Malawi. • The Southern Province Household Food Security Program in Zambia. • The South-East Dry Areas Project. • The Smallholder Dry Areas Resource Management Project in Zimbabwe. • The Umutara Community Resources and Infrastructure Development Project (UCRIDP) in Rwanda. The project provided technical backstopping and training and stimulated participatory research on technological options and institutional arrangement to accelerate agricultural intensification using the CASE approach. Project staff also participated in formulation missions for the Programme d’Investissement Communautaire en Fertilité Agricole (PICOFA) and Projet de Développement Rural Durable du Burkina Faso (PDRDB) investment programs in Burkina Faso. Contacts were also established with IFAD investment programs in Ghana, Nigeria, Benin, and Mozambique. Two international training courses (one in English, one in French) were organized on the technological and institutional aspects of ISFM for partners from NARES, NGOs, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and investment program staff. The English training material is currently used for a distance learning course via the Internet by the Sustainable Development of Learning Network in Bangkok. Several training courses tailored to the specific needs and demands of partners at key sites were also provided. Many exchange visits and workshops were organized to enhance knowledge dissemination between countries and regions. The main lessons from the project are that translating research results into farm practice is not just about technologies but, more especially, about people and reinforcing their decision-making and capacity to analyze trade-offs and options and access information, services, and markets. This calls for a new approach to doing business in agricultural research and development. This new paradigm emphasizes interdisciplinary teamwork, inter-institutional partnerships, stakeholder involvement, participatory approaches, and systems thinking.
Agroecological Principles of Integrated Soil Fertility Management-A Guide With Special Reference to Sub-Saharan Africa
(2008) M.C.S. Wopereis; Abdoulaye Mando ; Bernard Vanlauwe
This publication focuses on the crucial role of soil fertility in agriculture and its impact on food security and livelihoods in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). With a large percentage of the population dependent on agriculture in the region, the study highlights the importance of integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) to increase land productivity while maintaining or enhancing soil fertility. The publication explores the factors influencing soil fertility, including natural processes, human interventions, and human settlements, as well as the impact of access to resources on soil fertility management. It also examines the trend of soil nutrient depletion and low fertilizer use in Africa, emphasizing the need for sustainable agricultural practices. The guide introduces agroecological principles and frameworks for ISFM at the farm and field levels, providing insights into nutrient flows and productivity. IFDC aims to enhance agricultural production and sustainability in SSA by promoting a participatory approach and farmer-led research.
A Dynamic Model to Forecast and Evaluate Changes and Trends in the Global Market for Fertilizers
(2011-05) Marcien Nibasumba
Fertilizers, improved seed and modernized crop management practices have contributed substantially to increases in agricultural productivity in recent decades, while helping to conserve ever-shrinking land resources and water supplies. Fertilizers will continue to play a key role in expanding agricultural productivity to meet the ever-increasing world demand for food, feed and bio-fuels. Forecasts of the trends that drive the rapidly expanding demand for these agricultural products and the associated supply of crop nutrients are critical for sound decision-making on a wide range of policy issues. Such trend forecasts are crucial to improving strategic planning and resource allocation; prioritizing investments in fertilizer production/supply expansion (based on expected impacts and risks); and reducing risks associated with the development of government policy and public/private sector investment. The objective of this paper is to illustrate the capability of FertTrade, a fertilizer trade model/algorithm created by IFDC as an analytical tool to address questions about development of the fertilizer and agricultural sectors around the world. Fert Trade estimates trends in the demand, production, supply and trade of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) fertilizer nutrients through 2025. FertTrade also assesses "what if" scenarios to evaluate changes in national variables such as populations, incomes, crop areas and yields. Fert Trade is a tool that can be used to help understand the nature and concept of derived fertilizer demand and the variables that are primary reasons for changes in that demand. The following factors are taken into account in the FertTrade modeling process: 1. Nature of Fertilizer Demand. 2. Climate Change. 3. Population and Income Growth. 4. Demand for Bio-Fuels. 5. Fertilizer and Food Prices. 6. Improvements in Technology. Fert Trade's analytics can be used to evaluate scenarios of changing demographic, economic, technological and agro-climatic circumstances that affect agricultural production and the global demand, production and trade of the major fertilizer nutrients (N, P and K). For demonstration purposes, Fert Trade was used to estimate and evaluate trends in the demand, production and trade of these fertilizer nutrients globally on the basis of estimates aggregated for the world as a whole, regionally and sub-regionally. Crop production outputs produced as simulation outcomes were used to estimate quantities of derived demand for the nutrients in each of the nations/sub-regions. The model included five major components: 1. Scenario design. 2. Estimation of crop production outputs by a commodity market model. 3. Estimation of the derived demand for the three fertilizer nutrients 4. Projections of production capacities and supplies of N, P and K. 5. Estimation of volumes and patterns of trade for N, P and K. Trend modeling and projections of demand/supply of world fertilizer nutrients through 2025 are also vital compo- nents of Fert Trade. Trends in key countries, regions and sub-regions are also addressed. Results of national/sub- regional analyses of demand and supply projections for N, P and K nutrients in 2005, 2015 and 2025 will be detailed and summarized in this paper. Highlights of these trends include: 1. Exponential rates of growth of demand for N, P and K. 2. Projected fertilizer demand growth rates during 2005-2025 3. Increases in the demand and consumption of N, P and K fertilizers 4. Increases in the production and supply of N, P and K fertilizers 5. The supply-demand balance and trade of N, Pand K fertilizers Currently, FertTrade is a useful tool for policy change and reclusology development decisions that she fertilizer performance and agriculture sectors globally, regionally and nationally in this context, the codel can be used to evaluate ex-ante changes induced by policies or technology innovations that affect these sectors using "what if scenarios. Thus, FertTrade can be used to assess such changes in teos of impacts an agricultural production productivity and the demand, supply and trade of fertilizers. A "what if scenario was designed to assess the primary economic and enviniamental impacts of cuccessfully increasing fertilizer N use efficiency in cereal production from 40 percent to 60 percent. Then, the potential emo feasibility for society as a whole to invest in such technology was assessed. Subjects of the evaluation include 1. The efficiency of fertilizer N applied to crops. 2. The context for assessment of impact of increased N-efficiency in cereal production 3. Impact on consumption of fertilizer N. 4. Impact on losses of fertilizer N to the environment 5. Economic impact in developing countries. 6. Impact on the environment. Results will show that even if investments in this effort are substantial (175 $4 billion during five years), res on investment will justify such investments-if the N use efficiency goals are reached and the projected levels of adoption by cereal farmers are achieved within the proposed time horizon of 10-15 years. Fert Trade currently is utilized for analyses and evaluation of issues and evolving circumstances that affect fertil izer sectors and agricultural production and development globally, regionally and nationally. However, Feride's capabilities and applications can be significantly expanded through additional model development and refinement. For example, by expanding its capability to derive estimates of, and pollution associated with, livestock and emp production (as well as fertilizer production and use), environmental impacts could be estimated and assessed Sub- quently, FertTrade could be used to evaluate scenarios of changing circumstances in terms of potential enviromental impacts. The model's current capabilities, limitations and possibilities for further development will be described and detailed over the course of the paper.
Biochemical Nutrient Pathways in Plants Applied as Foliar Spray: Phosphorus and Iron
(2013-01) Bindraban, Prem S.; Renu Pandey; Vengavasi Krishnapriya
In plants, the roots are traditionally the primary site for water and inorganic nutrient absorption from the soil. However, recent research has shown that foliage, including leaves, stems, inflorescence, and fruits, can also affect nutrient uptake. This study aims to review the general pathways of foliar nutrient absorption and investigate the specific mechanisms involved in the penetration, absorption, and translocation of phosphorus (P) and iron (Fe) into various cell organelles. The physico-chemical properties of the spray formulation used for foliar application, such as pH, surface tension, polarity, spreading, and fluid retention, influence the efficacy of nutrient uptake. Additionally, the molecular size, ionic charge, and solubility of nutrient elements in the spray fluid, along with environmental factors such as relative humidity, temperature, light, and wind, affect the rate of foliar uptake. Plant-related factors like phenological stage, leaf morphology (shape, presence of hairs, stomatal characteristics), leaf surface architecture, chemistry, and nutrient mobility within the plant also contribute to foliar nutrient uptake efficiency. Soil fertilization of P and Fe is often limited by their low bioavailability, primarily influenced by soil pH. Slow diffusion and P fixation in soil result in limited availability of P, with plants absorbing only 10-20% of applied P during the growing season. Similarly, Fe availability is reduced at higher pH levels, and its deficiency is more pronounced in growing plant tissues. Foliar application of nutrients can effectively address the low bioavailability of P and Fe in soil and provide immediate relief from nutrient stress. Although foliar application cannot completely replace soil fertilization, it can enhance plant growth. This paper reviews and synthesizes existing literature on the pathways of foliar nutrient absorption and explores the biochemical processes involved in P and Fe penetration, absorption, and translocation within plant cells. Understanding these processes can aid in identifying effective nutrient compositions and developing advanced foliar fertilizers. The findings contribute to the knowledge of foliar nutrient uptake mechanisms and support the development of sustainable agricultural practices.
Foliar Fertilizer Application – Preliminary Review
(2013-02) Bindraban, Prem S.; Wim Voogt; Chris Blok; Barbara Eveleens; Leo Marcelis
Plant nutrient uptake primarily occurs through the roots, but leaves can absorb certain nutrients through foliar sprays or deposition on the leaf surface. This is particularly important for plants like epiphytes or aquatic species that rely heavily on leaf nutrient uptake. Foliar sprays are commonly used when soil conditions limit nutrient availability or in specific crop situations. However, the effectiveness of foliar sprays and the mechanisms of foliar nutrient uptake are poorly understood. This study aims to provide an overview of the current scientific knowledge, practical experiences, and gaps in understanding regarding foliar nutrient application. The study conducted a literature review using agricultural, soil science, and plant nutrition databases to gather recent publications and scientific data on foliar applications. Additionally, interviews with crop and soil consultants were conducted to gather information on standard practices and recommendations. The focus was on greenhouse crops, field crops, fruit crops, citrus, tropical fruits, and cereals. The findings highlight the need to better understand the physiological mechanisms of nutrient uptake through leaves and stems. This knowledge can help identify effective nutrient compositions, determine the need for coating or chelation, and maximize nutrient uptake potential through foliar application. The study also emphasizes the necessity of distinguishing between factual information and beliefs or myths surrounding foliar application to improve fertilizer use efficiency.
Methodology to Assess the Impact of Fertilizer Strategies on Planetary Boundaries
(2013-03) Conijn, J.G; F.J. de Ruijter; J.J. Schröder; Bindraban, Prem S.
Fertilizers affect plant growth fundamentally and are essential to feed the world's population. Yet, fertilizer use also causes eutrophication and greenhouse gas emissions Overuse will aggravate these side effects, but underuse leads to the agro-ecosystem's degradation, poverty and hunger. Nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers have been identified as one of the driving forces that push the Earth from its stable geological era of the Holocene into the Anthropocene with unknown implications for life on Earth. Curtailing nutrient losses will have far-reaching implications on the Earth's ecosystem and human health and well-being. This report describes a methodology to quantitatively link global N and P cycles to four other global change drivers: land-system change, freshwater use, climate change and stratospheric ozone depletion. This will allow the assessment of the impact of fertilizer interventions on these drivers revealing synergies and trade-offs concerning food security and the environment.
The Quality of Fertilizer Traded in West Africa: Evidence for Stronger Control
(2013-03) Austin, E. Rick ; Peter Heffernan; John Allgood; Amit H. Roy; Emmanuel Alognikou; Georges Dimithe; Joaquin Sanabria
The Commissions of the Economic Community of the West African States (ECOWAS) and the West Africa Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA) are developing a regional legal framework for controlling the quality of fertilizer traded in West Africa. The main purpose of this framework is to safeguard the interests of farmers against nutrient deficiencies, adulteration, misleading claims and short weight as well as to contribute to the creation of an enabling environment for private sector investment in the fertilizer industry. To determine the basis for assessing the effectiveness of this framework when it is implemented, the ECOWAS and UEMOA Commissions initiated, through the Marketing Inputs Regionally (MIR) Plus project, a study to assess the quality of fertilizer traded in West Africa as well as factors influencing fertilizer quality. The study was carried out by trained inspectors from the national fertilizer regulatory services in five West African countries – Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Senegal and Togo. The sampling methodology consisted of two steps. The first step focused on obtaining a random sample of 5 to 10 percent of fertilizer dealers in each country either from maps (Ghana and Nigeria) geo-referencing the location of each dealer or with lists of dealers available at the ministry of agriculture (Côte d’Ivoire, Senegal and Togo). The second step was the collection of random samples of fertilizers from each of the dealers selected in the first step. Fertilizer sampling and collection was done following an agreed-upon protocol. In addition, pretested questionnaires were used to record conditions of storage, physical attributes of fertilizers and characteristics of markets and dealers. A total of 2,028 fertilizer samples was collected from the 827 wholesalers, government depots and retailers of various sizes in the five countries. The distribution of these fertilizer samples is a good representation of the relative importance of the different fertilizer products in the five countries. Urea and the NPK 15:15:15 blend were the only products collected from each of the five countries. Urea, the compound NPK 15:15:15, the compound NPK 16:16:16, the compound NPK 23:10:5, the blend NPK 15:15:15 and ammonium sulfate (AS) account for 79 percent of the samples collected. The chemical analyses of the fertilizer samples focused on determining the content of primary plant nutrients (total nitrogen, available phosphorus and soluble potassium). However, few samples were considered for determination of secondary nutrients (calcium [Ca], magnesium [Mg] and sulfur [S]). Statistical analyses were applied to data on nutrient contents, physical attributes and characteristics of markets, dealers and storage conditions to determine the quality of the different fertilizer products and to associate fertilizer quality with market and dealer characteristics. To be meaningful, the nutrient content compliance was analyzed statistically only for the fertilizer products with at least 23 samples and these accounted for 93 percent of all the samples collected in the study. Nutrient content compliance was assessed based on newly adopted ECOWAS standards. Blends and Compounds Present Cases of Poor Quality, but This is Most Severe for Blends The chemical analyses carried out show that NPK fertilizers manufactured through blending present the most frequent and severe cases of poor quality compared with compound products. More specifically, 51 percent of the 106 samples of the 15:15:15 blend were out of compliance with respect to newly adopted ECOWAS tolerance limits for nutrient content deviations. Similarly, 86 percent of the 90 samples of the blended 20:10:10, 12 percent of the 30 samples of the blended 6:20:10, 96 percent of the 27 samples of the blended 15:10:10, 31 percent of the 23 samples of Asaase Wura (0:22:18+9CaO+7S+5MgO) and 26 percent of the 27 samples of Cocoa Feed (0:30:20) failed to meet the ECOWAS quality standards. In contrast, compared with blended products, only 4 percent of the 534 samples of urea, 10 percent of the 356 samples of the compound 15:15:15, 16 percent of the 162 samples of AS (21:0:0+24S), 15 percent of the 162 samples of compound 16:16:16, 1 percent of the 103 samples of compound 23:10:5 and 4 percent of the 90 samples of Sulfan (24:0:0+6S) failed to meet the ECOWAS quality standards. While the proportions of non-compliant samples observed in the compound products is lower than the ones observed in blended products, these can still be considered high for imported products. This result confirms the finding of a previous assessment carried out in 1995 indicating that 10 of the 29 samples of NPK compounds examined were nutrient-deficient. Of the 10 samples of single superphosphate (SSP) collected from several locations in Nigeria, seven of them were found to contain no P2 O5 but contained mainly quartz (SiO2 ). The chemical and X-ray mineralogical analyses indicate that the samples with no phosphorus come from spurious materials without fertilizer characteristics that are commercialized as SSP. Country-to-Country Comparisons Show Variable Product Quality Country-to-country comparisons made between Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and Togo for the blended 15:15:15 and between Ghana, Nigeria and Togo for the compound 15:15:15 show a great deal of variability between countries. The overall out-of-nutrient content compliance for the blended 15:15:15 was the highest in Côte d’Ivoire (87 percent), followed by Ghana (42 percent) and Togo (6 percent). For the compound 15:15:15, the overall out-of-nutrient content compliance was highest in Nigeria (16 percent), followed by Ghana (10 percent) and Togo (3 percent). The low proportion of non-compliant samples observed in Togo may be attributed to the fact that, of the three countries, Togo might be expected to have low variability in the importation sources and a relative simple distribution chain due to government control of importation and distribution. Nutrient Deficiencies in Blended Products are Not Simply an Issue of Segregation The analysis indicated that the main reason for nutrient content deficiencies in Asaase Wura is the uneven distribution of nutrients in the fertilizer bags caused by granule segregation. Nutrient content deficiencies are also attributed to segregation of the fertilizer components used in the bulk blend for half of the 15:15:15, two-thirds of the Cocoa Feed and one-third of the 6:20:10 blend samples. These results suggest that the high proportion of nutrient-deficient cases found in these products can be avoided using fertilizers of uniform granule size for the manufacture of these blends and utilizing appropriate equipment and procedures to make the blends. The effect of segregation in the NPK blends 15:10:10 and 20:10:10 which have the highest proportion of non-compliant samples is found to be minimal. This indicates that the lack of nutrient compliance in these products is mainly explained by insufficient nutrient input in the blend manufacture. Evidence of Adulterated Products in the Collected Samples is Weak Trained inspectors reported evidence of adulteration in 31 of 134 (23 percent) samples from Côte d’Ivoire but only 14 of 414 (3.4 percent) samples from Nigeria. However, the only cases of completely proven adulteration are the seven samples of SSP from Nigeria that were found to have no P2 O5 content nor any of the minerals that carry P in phosphate rock. Short Weight Fertilizer Bags are Common in the Market An analysis of the weight of 1,055 fertilizer bags collected from all five countries indicates that there is a 41 percent chance that the bag weight does not comply with the ECOWAS tolerance limit in Nigeria, a 28 percent chance for this to occur in Côte d’Ivoire, 13 percent in Senegal, 12 percent in Ghana and 7 percent in Togo. The two probable reasons for underweight bags are poor process control or deliberate acts of underweighting. Market Characteristics are Associated with the Quality of Products Statistically significant association between market characteristics and fertilizer quality categories (good or bad) was found only for 15:15:15 blends when samples from all countries were combined. This was probably because, under this scenario (aggregating samples), there is enough variability in the samples collected between the two categories “Bad” and “Good” for this particular product. The rural markets are associated with significantly higher percentage (87.5 percent) of Good quality fertilizer than the urban markets (56.5 percent). Statistical analysis results also showed that permanent markets tend to have a significantly higher percentage of Good quality of the 15:15:15 blends than periodic markets. Similarly, markets with high concentration of agro-dealers tend to have a significantly higher percentage of Good quality products than isolated agro-dealers. When data was analyzed by country, the pattern of the associations between market characteristics and fertilizer quality differed from the identified when the aggregated data from the five countries was analyzed. This was either because some associations could not be evaluated due to insufficient sample size or because of insufficient quality variability within fertilizers with appropriate sample size. With country-level analysis, statistically significant association between market characteristics and fertilizer quality categories (good or bad) was found only for the 15:15:15 blend in Ghana and for the 15:15:15 compound in Nigeria. In Nigeria, the urban markets showed significantly higher frequency of good quality than the rural markets. In Ghana, the permanent markets, and the dealers that sell mainly to large scale farmers presented significantly higher frequency of good quality than temporary markets and dealers that sell mainly to small scale farmers, respectively. Licensing and Knowledge of Fertilizers Matter Statistical analysis performed on 106 samples of the blended 15:15:15 and agro-dealer characteristics reveals that agro-dealers with “good knowledge about fertilizers” are more likely to sell a higher percentage of Good quality products than the others. Similarly, analyses carried out with the 624 samples of 15:15:15 blends, 15:15:15 compounds and 16:16:16 compounds show that the agro-dealers with a license for selling fertilizer are more likely to sell a higher percentage of Good quality fertilizers than nonlicensed ones. In addition, the analysis also indicates that the agro-dealers that predominantly sell fertilizer to large-scale farmers are more likely to sell a higher percentage of Good quality products than the agro-dealers who sell fertilizer mainly to small-scale farmers. Wholesalers have a significantly higher percentage of Good quality fertilizers than retailers. Physical Attributes of Fertilizers are Associated with Product Quality as Well The qualitative assessment of granule integrity (presence of fine particles and dust) indicated that all the blended fertilizers had at least 50 percent of the samples classified at medium- or high-level categories for the presence of fine particles. The 15:10:10 blend also had 80 percent of dust presence at the high category. Among the compound fertilizers, 16:16:16, 15:15:15, 23:10:5 and Sulfan also presented more than 50 percent of the samples classified in the categories of Medium and High for presence of fine particles. Paradoxically, granule integrity was found poorer for compound 15:15:15 than for the blended 15:15:15. Unfortunately, this lack of granular integrity has a negative impact on the fertilizer’s quality. The observed frequent and severe granule degradation identified can be attributed to excessive manipulation of the fertilizer bags associated with their manual and individual handling. There is also a clear tendency of complex distribution chains (Nigeria and Ghana) to present higher frequency and severity of granular degradation than simple distribution chains (Togo). As expected, the study found a strong correlation between high moisture levels and high caking levels, for both the blended fertilizers and the compound fertilizers. The importance of appropriate bagging was underscored by findings in Senegal where 41 percent of the bags were found to be outer woven without plastic inner lining, and 61 percent of the samples presented medium to high degrees of urea caking. Low frequency of caking in urea was closely associated with use of laminated bags or bags with plastic lining in Ghana, Nigeria, and Togo. Among the physical attributes of fertilizer considered in the study, the moisture content and the segregation showed significant relationships with nutrient content quality only in the 15:15:15 blend. Effective Implementation of the Adopted ECOWAS Fertilizer Regulatory System is Critical The study results clearly suggest that effectively implementing the adopted ECOWAS fertilizer regulatory system is likely to ensure that products supplied to the market meet high quality standards. The system calls for licensing of agro-dealers as well as inspection, sampling and analysis of fertilizers at importation points and along the distribution chain. Addressing the Quality Challenges of the Blends is Needed The fact that blends show the most frequent and severe cases of poor quality suggests that it is imperative to identify the origin of their quality problems and to propose appropriate solutions. In addition, there is a clear need to enhance the manufacturing knowledge and equipment for manufacturing blends. Building the Capacity of Agro-Dealers is Necessary The study results equally suggest the need to train distributors on the appropriate storage and handling of fertilizer products, as well as their physical and chemical properties. Doing so will contribute to reducing the effect of physical attributes of fertilizer on product quality.
Plant Strategies and Cultural Practices to Improve the Uptake of Indigenous Soil P and the Efficiency of Fertilization
(2013-04) Bindraban, Prem S.; A.L. Smit ; M. Blom-Zandstra; A. van der Werf
Phosphorus (P) availability is a significant constraint in global crop production. Current annual mineral P fertilizer input exceeds the actual uptake by crops, leading to P accumulation in soils and inefficient resource utilization. This study investigates the hypothesis that enhancing early plant growth can improve P uptake from indigenous soil resources and fertilizer P. The low recovery rate of applied mineral P fertilizer, typically less than 30%, is attributed to its binding with soil complexes, making it less available for plant uptake. The soil solution often exhibits very low P concentrations compared to root concentrations, emphasizing the need to increase P availability or enhance plants' ability to extract P from soil complexes. In regions with P-deficient soils, substantial P applications are required to improve fertility and enhance crop yields. Similarly, unintentional excess P application occurs in areas with nutrient surpluses, resulting from concentrated livestock production and subsequent manure application. These fertile soils can contain excessive total soil P, far exceeding the annual crop uptake. If these soil P reserves were fully available to crops, they could sustain agricultural production for several hundred years. Case studies in Africa demonstrate the relationship between total soil P content and maize grain yield, indicating the potential longevity of soil P reserves in sustaining production. Even soils with relatively low fertility levels have sufficient total P content to support production for over a hundred years. However, the assumed P content in crop biomass may be lower at these sites, implying even longer sustainability. By enhancing early plant growth, this study aims to improve plant P uptake efficiency, effectively utilize accumulated soil P, and optimize the uptake of newly applied P fertilizers. The findings of this research contribute to developing strategies for sustainable P management, promoting efficient resource utilization and improved crop productivity.
Beneficial Organisms for Nutrient Uptake
(2014-01) Bindraban, Prem S.; Nina Koele; Thomas W. Kuyper
Phosphorus (P) availability is a major global limiting factor in crop production. The global input of mineral P fertilizer in food production is significant, but its efficiency is low, with only approximately 20% of applied P being converted into consumed P in food. Moreover, excessive application of P can lead to its accumulation in soils. As P resources are finite, maximizing their efficient use and stimulating the uptake of newly applied P fertilizers is crucial. This study investigates the hypothesis that enhancing early plant growth can improve plant P uptake, regardless of soil P levels. Experiments demonstrate that the recovery of mineral P fertilizer by crops is generally low, often less than 30%. Much of the applied fertilizer becomes bound to the soil complex, rendering it unavailable for plant uptake. Soil chemical processes produce very low P concentrations in the soil solution, whereas root concentrations are significantly higher. P deficiency in soils produces low crop yields, particularly in developing countries. To address this, the P concentration in the soil solution must be increased, or plants should possess enhanced abilities to extract P from the soil complex. Increasing P availability in soils requires substantial P application over several years, exceeding the crop's yearly uptake. Soil "loading" with P can occur unintentionally in regions with nutrient surpluses, such as areas with concentrated livestock production. These fertile soils contain excessive amounts of P compared to the crop's annual uptake. Similarly, less fertile soils have lower total P content but also lower crop off-take. In both cases, soil P reserves are abundant and could sustain agricultural production for many years if made available to the crop. This study emphasizes the importance of enhancing early plant growth to improve P uptake efficiency and utilize indigenous soil resources effectively. By increasing our understanding of plant-soil interactions and developing strategies to optimize P availability and uptake, we can enhance agricultural productivity while minimizing the environmental impact of excessive P application.
Eliminating Zinc Deficiency in Rice-Based Systems
(2014-02) Andreas Duffner; Ellis Hoffland; Tjeerd Jan Stomph; Alida Melse-Boonstra; Bindraban, Prem S.
Zinc deficiency is a wide-spread and serious problem both in human populations and in crop production. It is a relevant issue in rice-based systems due to their extent and role in human nutrition worldwide. There is an urgent need to increase human Zn intake through biofortification strategies in these systems. Particularly in developing countries, there is a spatial correlation between human Zn deficiency and low Zn soils Main soil factors controlling plant-available Zn are pH, redox condition, organic matter content and concentrations of other trace elements. By far the biggest fraction of total Zn is adsorbed to the soil's solid phase in most soils. This requires management practices that avoid a risk for Zn fertilizer failure and/or a choice of rice cultivars that are able to mobilize Zn adsorbed by the soil's solid phase. Management practices could include balancing Zn with N and P fertilization, seed or follar application of Zn and effective organic matter management. On the plant level the rooting density, the root efflux (exudates) and influx (Zn) and Zn translocation are important factors. The translocation from aboveground vegetative tissues to the grain endosperm seems the most limiting step to reach higher Zn concentrations in grains. Genetic variation in several steps leading to grain Zn loading have been found, but options to align these do not seem to have been fully explored. It probably needs combination of breeding with Zn application treatments to both tackle Zn deficiencies at the crop growth stage and at grain Zn loading stages. The role of N fertilization in creating synergy also needs further investigations. To improve human Zn intake, several strategies can be applied, such as supplementation, dietary diversification and food fortification. Among these, biofortifying rice through breeding or agronomic management is the most sustainable strategy and unlikely to pose any adverse health effects on people. The few case studies available support this conclusion.
Se Fertilization: An Agro-Ecosystem Approach
(2014-03) Bindraban, Prem S.; G.H. Ros; A.M.D. van Rotterdam; G.D. Doppenberg; D.W. Bussink
Selenium (Se) is an essential micronutrient for humans, animals and certain lower plants, and its supply in global food systems is highly variable. The variation of Se status in humans largely depends on their diet, which is strongly related to the geographical variation in soil’s Se level. Selenium deficiency is regarded as a major health problem for 0.5 to 1 billion people worldwide. Whereas the global importance of selenium deficiency has been recognized for decades, strategic micronutrient interventions to overcome this deficiency are still limited. Basically, there are two groups of fortification strategies available to increase Se intake worldwide. First of all, human Se intake may be increased by supplementation of livestock, direct food fortification or supplementation with Se pills. Alternatively, agronomic strategies like plant breeding and fertilization can be used to increase Se uptake of staple food crops. We argue that the best strategy depends on the natural, societal and economic properties of local agro-ecosystems. Adapting the fortification strategy to the local properties of an agro-ecosystem is the way forward to solve Se deficiencies worldwide without resource exhaustion of the worlds’ scarce Se resources and potentially harmful environmental side-effects. An essential part of such an agro-ecosystem approach will be a robust and reliable fertilizer strategy that takes the spatial and temporal variability in climatic conditions, soil properties and cropping systems into consideration. Selecting the proper fertilizer strategy requires a mechanistic understanding of Se plant-soil-atmosphere cycling and insights in plant availability of added Se fertilizers. The research presented in this report aims to identify when applying Se fertilizer is effective in specific agroecosystems based on an inventory of specific production-ecological causes for its deficiency in relation to fertilizer application. Important factors controlling Se availability and uptake are identified using meta-analysis and are integrated in a framework for a decision support tool that guides users in the selection of effective fortification strategies. This research primarily focuses on fertilization as a fortification strategy, but other strategies are briefly introduced and evaluated. The review and meta-analysis indicate that fertilizer doses need to match crop demand with Se supply, given the capacity of soils to supply or retain Se during the growing season. Main soil properties controlling crop uptake efficiency of applied Se include acidity, redox potential, texture and organic matter. Agronomic practices such as liming, irrigation and basic fertilization (nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur) additionally affect the crop uptake efficiency. Adapting fertilizer strategies to the local agronomic situation and soil properties can increase the crop uptake efficiency from 10% (common situation) up to 50%. Important fertilizer strategies include:  The use of a site specific fertilizer dose: Se fertilizer use should account for the Se supply and availability in the soil and any residual effects of former Se fertilizer applications.  The choice for a specific Se fertilizer: Selenate is about 8 times more effective on the short term than selenite and has smaller residual effects.  Application technique: Both foliar- and soil-applied fertilizers are able to enhance Se uptake, but foliar application is more resource efficient. Seed coating can be an alternative, but the crop uptake efficiency is usually less than 10%.  Application timing: Fertilizer application during the growing season results in higher Se levels in the crop in comparison with fertilizer applications before the growing season. By far, the most resource-efficient way to increase the Se intake in the world’s population appears to be by adding Se to food products along the production chain. The positive effects of food processing is however limited by the fact that a limited number of people have access to processed foods, particularly in developing countries. Fortification through agronomic practices can therefore be an efficient and effective approach to increase human (and animal) Se intake through simple techniques that can be integrated in current farm management. Plant breeding for enhanced Se uptake efficiency and Se fertilization are currently the most promising agronomic strategies to increase Se status of human populations as they can deliver increased Se to a whole population safely, effectively, efficiently and in the most suitable chemical forms. These strategies might also be complementary to fortification strategies like food processing. Social and economic factors such as the availability of Se-enriched fertilizers and governmental incentives and regulations are needed to increase farmers and public acceptance of fortification programs and Se-enriched food products. The developed decision support tool integrates all these aspects in such a way that it can be applied to any agro-ecosystem. In summary, agro-ecosystem-dependent fortification strategies are necessary to increase human Se intake without exhaustion of the worlds’ scarce Se resources. The use of Se fertilizers is currently one of the most promising strategies, in particular when the fertilizer strategy (dose, formulation, application and timing) is adapted to the local properties of an agro-ecosystem.
Establishing a Viable Fertilizer Quality Detection System
(2014-04) K. Perumal; J. Arunkuma; S. Ananthi; T.A. Sambanda Moorthy; B. Karthik; Bindraban, Prem S.; Upendra Singh
The proof of concept project entitled “Establishing the Viability of a Fertilizer Quality Detection System Using Alternative Analytical Technology (FAAT)” is aimed at developing a quick and robust methodology to determine the nutrient content in fertilizers. The methodology comprises the use of circular paper chromatography (CPC) and digital characterization of the corresponding chromatographic images incorporated in a database for automated assessments. One hundred (from the United States) and 22 (from India) different types of fertilizers were procured from the United States and India, and their nutrient properties were analyzed following conventional methods. These fertilizer samples were further diluted in 100 mL of 1% NaOH to obtain 3800 fertilizer concentrations. For the Indian fertilizers, 2200 samples were obtained with all 22 fertilizers by generating 100 different samples in incremental dilutions of 0.050g, up to 5 g. For the IFDC fertilizers, 1600 samples were similarly obtained from 80 of the 100 fertilizers, diluted up to 1 g. These fertilizer concentrations were analyzed using CPC. Three databases were created to serve as reference, comprising (i) the Indian fertilizer database with 1500 reference fertilizer sample images, (ii) the IFDC database with 563 samples and (iii) a combined database of 2063 samples. Finally, an unknown fertilizer chromatographic image from unknown fertilizer sample types was used for testing the accuracy of the methodology by comparing the chromatographic images with the images contained in the reference databases. Out of the 25 test samples from IFDC, 21 reported similarity between AAT methodology and conventional analytical methods for nutrient content determination, and hence on quality, implying that 84% were mimicked correctly. Out of the 18 fertilizers from India, 11 tested correctly when using the database with 1500 references, representing about 61% accuracy of retrieving the correct fertilizer type and quality. The consolidated database containing both IFDC and Indian fertilizer (2063) was tested and recorded 34 out of 43 test samples that were similar between the FAAT system and conventional analytical methods, indicating about 70% accuracy. The existing AAT software was fine-tuned and integrated as unique stand-alone software for the FAAT system and used for fertilizer testing. An investigation was also carried with two types of fertilizers: urea and single superphosphate (SSP), and deliberately adulterating them with low grade inputs. The urea fertilizer was adulterated with ammonium sulfate (AS) and single superphosphate in the ratios of 1:0, 1:1, 1:3 and 3:1. The adulterated fertilizers were blended using mortar and pestle and 0.500g and 1.000 g were taken for CPC image development. Both the urea fertilizer and SSP were adulterated with AS and gypsum and tested on the FAAT system based on CPC images. The adulterated samples were retrieved from the data base and indicated 100% and 71% accuracy, respectively. Our study shows that with further refinement, the use of AAT methodology for testing fertilizer nutrient content and the presence of contaminants, and hence quality of the fertilizer, is a promising technology.
Strategies for the Development of Environmentally Friendly Phosphate Fertilizers Based on Gram-Negative Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria
(2014-05) Goldstein, A.
The use of rock phosphate ore (RPO) as an environmentally friendly phosphate fertilizer (EFPF) requires the development of sustainable systems capable of generating soluble phosphate (Pi) from this material in a manner that can support crop production. Mineral phosphate solubilizing micro-organisms (MPSM) have routinely demonstrated the ability to drive agronomically viable levels of RPO dissolution and are obvious candidates for the development of EFPFs. The ubiquitous presence of MPS bacteria and fungi in agricultural and native soils throughout the world has fueled a global research effort by agricultural scientists to identify these microbes and to use them to achieve P fertilization. To date, this effort has failed to produce a sustainable fertilizer technology as evidenced by the simple fact that virtually all P fertilizers are still manufactured via sulfuric acid-based “wet processes.” Why have efforts to produce P fertilizers based on MPS microbes been a failure? The answer is, in point of fact, that there has never been a coherent development effort of sufficient duration and intensity to support biotechnology-based strategy for P fertilization of field crops. What has been witnessed in the past 50 years is an uncoordinated, unsophisticated, poorly funded, often redundant cycle of abortive short-term studies mainly related to the identification of P-solubilizing microbes, their biochemical characterization for this property and the evaluation of their ability to enhance plant performance. In contrast to these basic efforts, there have been no investments in the resources necessary to engage in the prolonged, tortuous process of product development. Thus, the fault lies not with the microbes but with the scientific effort, or lack thereof. This report is designed to strategize a way forward for the development of EFPFs based on the Gram-negative MPS bacteria that dissolve RPO and other poorly soluble mineral phosphates via the extracellular generation of powerful organic acids, specifically the solubilization of RPO and other poorly soluble mineral phosphates via the extracellular generation of gluconic and 2-ketogluconic acids using the enzymes of the direct oxidation (DO) pathway.
Digital Mapping of Soil Nutrients for the Republics of Burundi and Rwanda
(2015) Bindraban, Prem S. ; María Ruipérez González ; Kempen Bas ; Sandra Wolters; Cyrille Hicintuka; Zacharie Nzohabonayo; Wendt John ; Oscar Nduwimana; John Veerkamp
Lack of awareness about soil fertility constraints is a major limitation to developing sound liming and fertilizer recommendations in sub-Saharan Africa. Detailed maps of soil nutrient concentrations and soil acidity can help to identify areas with soil fertility constraints. For this purpose, maps of primary (P, K), secondary (Ca, Mg, S) and micronutrients (Cu, Zn, B), as well as pH, soil acidity (Al+H), effective CEC and organic matter were generated for the 0-20 cm soil layer by means of digital soil mapping using random forest models at a 250 m spatial resolution for Burundi and Rwanda. The models explained between 20% and 45% of the variation in the data.

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