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    Seminar on Phosphate Rock for Direct Application
    (1979-12) IFDC
    The IFDC Phosphate Program, established in 1974, focuses on three objectives: developing technology for efficient beneficiation of phosphate ores, identifying effective fertilizers for tropical and subtropical agriculture, and developing technologies for converting phosphate rock into fertilizers. The program aims to address the challenges posed by the depletion of easily accessible phosphate reserves and the need for more suitable fertilizers for small farmers in the developing world. Key activities include establishing a raw materials data file, researching beneficiation methods for low-quality ores, recovering phosphate slimes, and developing granulation and blending techniques for fertilizer production. The program aims to provide technical assistance, technology transfer, and manpower development to support sustainable agricultural practices in developing countries.
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    Proceedings of Fertilizer Efficiency Research and Technology Transfer Workshop for Africa South of the Sahara
    (1985-01) IFDC
    Africa is characterized by stark contrasts, including diverse populations, climates, and soils. Both the climate and the soils pose challenges to agriculture. A significant portion of tropical Africa experiences insufficient rainfall, while rainforests densely cover some regions. Moreover, most African grounds are of poor quality, ranking among the world's least fertile. Compounded by a rapidly growing population of 498.0 million in 1982, Africa faces a substantial agricultural crisis. Although a significant portion of the labor force was engaged in agriculture, food production per capita declined, resulting in decreased food self-sufficiency and increased reliance on food imports. The decline in food self-sufficiency has severe human and economic consequences. Many sub-Saharan countries struggle with inadequate nutrition, with per capita caloric intake falling below minimum standards. Additionally, insufficient domestic food production has led to a growing demand for food imports when grain prices rise, and African governments face balance of payments and foreign exchange challenges. Consequently, many countries have become increasingly dependent on food aid from high-income nations. Projections indicate a significant import gap in sub-Saharan Africa by 1990 if current income and price patterns persist. Meeting minimum caloric consumption levels would require a substantial increase in food imports. However, the decline in real per capita incomes further exacerbates the unmet food needs. Regional disparities suggest that the Sahel, central, and East Africa will likely experience the most severe food shortages. This paper identifies several factors contributing to food production shortfalls in Africa. Traditional farming systems adapted to low population densities struggle to intensify production with growing populations. Distorted policies and support systems favoring export cash crops over domestic food production have also hindered agricultural progress. Furthermore, inadequate agricultural research and technology transfer have impeded the development of locally relevant solutions. To address these challenges, a farming systems approach to research is proposed. This approach emphasizes bottom-up strategies, incorporating the perspectives and knowledge of farmers to develop tailored and context-specific agricultural technologies. Strengthening linkages among stakeholders and increasing mutual accountability is crucial for overcoming the agricultural crisis in Africa.
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    Implications of the Uruguay Round Agreements for Agriculture and Agribusiness Development in Bangladesh
    (2001) Balu L. Bumb; D.I. Gregory; A. Rab; M. Abdullah
    I. Introduction The Uruguay Round (UR) was the eighth round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) initiated in 1947. It was one of the longest and yet unique rounds. The negotiations under this round were initiated in 1986 and concluded in 1993, and agriculture was included for the first time under the GATT rules. The commitments for reducing tariffs, export subsidies, and domestic support to agriculture for various country groups under the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture (URAA) are briefly summarized in Matrix A. It is important to note from this matrix that while developing and developed countries are required to reduce: (1) tariffs (24% to 36%), (2) export subsidies (24% to 36%), and (3) domestic support to agriculture (13% to 20%), the least developed countries, such as Bangladesh, have been exempted from these reduction commitments. II. Nature and Scope of the Study The main objectives of this study are: (1) to assess Bangladesh’s URAA commitments with the prevailing situation during 1986-88 and 1995-97 and (2) to analyze the implications of the URAA and other related agreements for agriculture and agribusiness development in Bangladesh. The study focused on seven commodity groups, namely, processed cereals, edible oils, poultry products, processed dairy products, fruits and vegetables, fertilizers, and agricultural machinery. In addition, provisions dealing with primary products and trends in agricultural trade are also analyzed to provide the necessary background for the selected commodity groups. The analysis of trends in agricultural trade is confined to the commodities included in the URAA, which excludes jute products, fish, and fish products. III. Bangladesh’s URAA Commitments Bangladesh’s URAA commitments and the actual situation prevailing in 1986-88 and 1995-97 are summarized in Matrix B. According to Bangladesh’s URAA commitments, no quantitative restrictions are imposed on the import of the seven commodity groups nor is any export subsidy or domestic support to agriculture provided. Except for fertilizers and agricultural machinery, bound tariffs declared are 200%. For agricultural machinery and fertilizers (except superphosphates), bound tariffs are 0%. In contrast to bound tariffs, actual tariffs on five of the seven commodity groups were significantly lower during both time periods—1986-88 and 1995-97. The commitments on quantitative restrictions, export subsidy, and domestic support are also consistent with the actual situation for all commodity groups except table eggs. The import of table eggs during the 1995-97 period was fully banned. Bangladesh provides minimal domestic support to agriculture and agribusiness. No direct price-distorting subsidies are provided to exports of primary and processed commodities. Indirect support to commodity exports is also minimal and consistent with URAA provisions. In fact, Bangladesh can and should use the Green Box measures and other exemptions of the URAA to promote sound agriculture and agribusiness development in the country. Although existing direct and indirect subsidies on fertilizers are consistent with the URAA, Bangladesh needs to reassess the natural gas pricing subsidy for the fertilizer industry if it wants to capture the potential market for urea in the Asian region. IV. Bangladesh’s Trading Patterns and Partners Bangladesh has a tiny share (0.1%) in the global trade and agriculture contributes a small share (12%). Most of its agricultural trade is dominated by imports (over 90%). Agricultural exports contribute roughly 2% to the total exports and are overshadowed by primary products—tea and vegetables (98%) exported mainly to Poland, Pakistan, United States, United Kingdom, Saudi Arabia, the former Soviet Union, and Singapore. Bangladesh exported virtually nothing in recent years in the form of processed agricultural products and, worse still, whatever little was exported had been declining over time. On the import side, edible oils, dairy products, and fruits and vegetables account for approximately 95% of the import of processed agricultural products. The main trading partners are Argentina, Brazil, and Malaysia for edible oils; India, Bhutan, and Iran for fruits and vegetables; and Australia, New Zealand, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Poland for dairy products. In recent years, preferential duties on imports from Bhutan have encouraged import of processed fruits and fruit juices from Bhutan and from other countries via Bhutan. V. Implications of the URAA Being a least developed country (LDC), Bangladesh is exempted from reduction commitments on tariffs, export subsidies, and domestic support to agriculture under the URAA. Nevertheless, from the URAA perspective, Bangladesh’s trading environment is generally distortion free for the seven commodity groups included in this study. Because Bangladesh has liberalized its foreign trade at a faster pace than what is implied by the URAA, the country’s URAA commitments on tariffs are unlikely to have any significant impact on its trade because actual (operating) tariffs for most commodities are much lower than bound tariffs. Reductions in tariffs, export subsidies, and domestic support to agriculture in the developed and developing countries, especially Bangladesh’s trading partners, may open opportunities for both import substitution and export promotion in Bangladesh. However, it is unlikely that Bangladesh can benefit significantly in the short run from such opportunities because Bangladesh’s existing export trade is insignificant in processed products for which domestic and global markets are growing rapidly (4%-9%/year). The URAA may open opportunities for import substitution of edible oils and dairy products if global prices of these commodities increase significantly in the future. Likewise, Bangladesh may benefit from exports of agroprocessed products, especially fruits and vegetables, provided it takes a “proactive” policy approach to develop the agroprocessing sector by instituting suitable measures for technology transfer, market research, infrastructure development, and enabling policy environment. In this context, concessional imports coming from Bhutan need reassessment. VI. Policy and Technical Recommendations Policy and technical recommendations resulting from the study are divided into two groups. The first group includes policy and technical recommendations related to the Uruguay Round Agreements, and the second group deals with the policy and technical measures necessary for developing agriculture and agroprocessing in the country. 1. Policy and Technical Recommendations Related to the URAAs a. Tariff bounds declared in the UR schedules are unnecessarily high and should be reduced to more realistic levels, e.g., 50%, for all commodities except poultry products for which the tariffied rate in place of quantitative restrictions may be higher. Moreover, to encourage the production of agricultural inputs in the country, tariff bounds on fertilizers and agricultural machinery could be raised from zero percent to 50%. b. The remaining quantitative restrictions on agricultural trade should be tariffied. c. Institutional capacity for dealing with World Trade Organization (WTO)-related measures should be strengthened with the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Commerce d. Because many LDCs and developing countries were not well prepared to submit their URAA commitments, these countries should be allowed to revise their commitments during the next round of multilateral trade negotiations. e. The URAA has exempted input subsidies targeted to low-income or resource-poor farmers. Because most small farmers are low-income or resource-poor farmers in the LDCs, the WTO should allow the exemption of subsidies on agricultural inputs from domestic support reduction commitments in such countries. f. Investment in irrigation infrastructure is essential for the adoption of new technologies and the promotion of agricultural growth in developing countries. Since irrigation infrastructure is a public good, investment for developing irrigation facilities should be excluded from the aggregate measure of support (AMS) calculations. 2. Policy and Technical Recommendations Related to Agriculture and Agribusiness Development Agroprocessing in Bangladesh is at its infancy and requires support for development so that the country can benefit from the opening of markets for processed goods, especially fruits and vegetables, in the developed and developing countries. To support the development of agribusiness, the following measures should be taken. a. The Ministries of Agriculture and Commerce should develop market intelligence and market information systems to identify ‘niche’ markets for primary and processed fruits, vegetables, and other products exportable from Bangladesh. A special cell may be created in the Ministry of Agriculture and in the Export Promotion Bureau of the Ministry of Commerce for this purpose. The information about potential markets should be freely and regularly disseminated to interested entrepreneurs. b. The Government of Bangladesh (GOB) should make URAA-consistent investments in developing marketing infrastructures—facilities for grading, packaging, storage, and transportation—for reducing transaction costs of exports and in providing additional cargo space for exporting fruits and vegetables. c. GOB should reassess the need for subsidizing fertilizers for two reasons. First, fertilizer subsidies were introduced when global fertilizer prices were high—over $200/ton of urea. Currently urea is selling at less than $80/ton in the global market. Second, Bangladesh has a potential to capture the captive urea market in the region. To realize that potential in a manner that is consistent with WTO rules, Bangladesh may not be able to subsidize natural gas price to the fertilizer industry. d. Concessional imports of processed fruits and vegetables coming from Bhutan should be reexamined for two reasons. First, it distorts the tariff structure and incentives for domestic production. Second, it creates incentives for other countries to channel their exports through Bhutan. In such indirect trade, Bangladesh does not benefit from the reciprocity of bilateral trade agreements. e. The existing differential tariff rates, though consistent with the URAA, creates anomalies for the agroprocessing sector. Under the existing tariff structure, GOB charges lower tariffs on intermediate products and higher tariffs on finished products. Since many of the finished products, such as paper, plastics, etc., are used as inputs, such a tariff adds to the cost of production and makes domestically produced products less competitive. GOB should over time minimize the dispersion in tariffs and eventually move to a uniform tariff rate structure. f. The availability of finance seems to be a critical constraint to promoting agroprocessing investments. The access to institutional finance should be improved by creating special funds for long-term investment in agribusiness and by providing support to agribusiness dealers in project preparation and loan applications. g. Many small and medium business enterprises need training and technical assistance to develop the agroprocessing sector. GOB, in cooperation with donors, should arrange for such training and technical assistance and facilitate the transfer of technologies from developed and developing countries to Bangladesh
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    Synchronizing N Release from Organic Residues: Opportunities for Integrated Management of N
    (2001) Upendra Singh; Ken E. Giller; C.A. Palm; J.K. Ladha; Henk Breman
    In intensive cropping systems, mineral nitrogen (N) fertilizers represent the largest component of the N cycle because the indigenous N supply is not adequate. The requirement for mineral fertilizer may be reduced with the use of organic nutrient sources. A more realistic use of organic matter, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa due to limited amounts and availability, is the combined use of organic nutrient sources and mineral fertilizers. The beneficial effects of integrated use of inorganic fertilizers and organic manures on improved nutrient recoveries, soil moisture retention, cation exchange capacity, and erosion control have been reported. However, there are as many reports indicating negligible benefits or even disadvantages of combining nutrient sources on crop production. This is not surprising given the combination of organic residue sources, soils, climatic, crops, and management factors that influence nutrient dynamics. The most widely accepted function of organic materials is improving the nutrient availability to crops by supplying N. The key to both improving efficiency of N use and reducing N losses is synchronization of N supply from soil, biological N2 fixation, organic residues, and inorganic fertilizers with the crop N demand. Organic materials are not magic; N losses also result from their use. Controlling N release from organic sources depends on their nutrient content and quality, soil properties, and the environmental and management factors. This paper will synthesize the information generated from integrated nutrient management trials in subSaharan Africa and the Philippines. Management strategies based on an organic resources database and a dynamic soil-crop simulation model are used to identify organic sources as N fertilizers or soil amendments. The decision support tools are also used to attain optimum synchrony between release from organic sources and soils with crop N demand.
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    Determination of Optimum Farmyard Manure and Np Fertilizers for Maize on Farmers’ Fields
    (2001-02) Wakene Negassa; Kefyalew Negisho; Dennis K. Friesen; Joel Ransom; Abebe Yadessa
    A study was initiated in 1997 to introduce the culture of supplementing low rates of NP fertilizers with farmyard manure (FYM) in the maize based farming systems of western Oromia. The treatments were 0/0, 20/20, 40/25 and 60/30 kg N/P ha-1 and 0, 4, 8, and 12 t FYM ha-1 in factorial arrangement in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The experiment was conducted at Laga Kalla, Walda, Shoboka, Harato, and Bako Research Center using BH660 hybrid maize. The FYM used for the experiment was well decomposed under shade and spot applied together with the P fertilizer at planting; N was applied in split form. The residual effects of FYM were investigated for Laga Kalla, Walda and Shoboka during the 1998 cropping season. Statistical analysis revealed that the N/P fertilizers and FYM significantly (p<0.05) increased grain yield in all locations except for Walda in 1997. Interactions of FYM and NP fertilizer rates were significant (p≤0.05) at all locations except for Shoboka. The application of FYM alone at rates of 4, 8, and 12 t ha-1 produced average grain yields of 5.76, 5.61 and 5.93 t ha-1, respectively, compared to 3.53 t ha-1 for the control treatment. Laboratory analysis confirmed that considerable amounts of macronutrients and small amounts of micronutrients were supplied by the FYM. There were significant residual effects of FYM and NP fertilizers applied in 1997 on maize grain yields in 1998. Based on the results of this study, the integrated use of properly managed FYM and low rates NP fertilizers could be used for maize production in the areas under consideration. Moreover, sole applications of FYM on relatively fertile soils like Walda and Harato are useful in maintaining soil fertilty and are encouraging for resource poor farmers.
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    Integrated Soil Fertility Management, and Effective Water Conservation Technology for Sustainable Dryland Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa
    (2004) Bidjokazo Fofana; M.C.S. Wopereis ; R. Zougmoré; Henk Breman; Abdoulaye Mando
    Soil fertility is naturally low in extensive parts of subSaharan Africa (SSA) and nutrient mining, through crop nutrient removal without adequate replenishment, leads to soil degradation. To reverse soil and environmental degradation, it is imperative to develop new and sustainable technologies in cooperation with farmers. IFDC is involved in the development of Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) strategies that enhance both agricultural productivity and soil fertility through the appropriate and integrated use of locally available organic resources and inorganic fertilizers. IFDC has developed – in close collaboration with its partner institutions and major stakeholders (i.e. farmers, input dealers, traders, rural bankers) a participatory process-oriented approach to promote ISFM strategies in several well-targeted areas in West Africa. Strategic research is being carried out with partners in West Africa to fill gaps in existing knowledge and in particular, to examine synergies obtained from ISFM strategies and their impact on water- and nutrient-use efficiencies. Concepts of water-limited versus nutrient-limited growing conditions and results from strategic research efforts in south Togo and Burkina Faso are reported on. The combined use of mineral fertilizers and a mucuna short fallow resulted in significant gains in agricultural productivity in mixed maize-manioc production systems in Togo. The mulching effect of mucuna led to increased grain yield and nutrient (N) use efficiency by maize. This was ascribed to the effectiveness of mucuna mulch in improving water conservation and crop establishment. In Burkina Faso, stone rows and grass strips were shown to be effective means to conserve water, but sorghum productivity and water use efficiency were only improved with application of compost or urea-N. The combined application of urea-N and various organic soil amendments led to increased grain yield and N agronomic efficiency by sorghum, but not water conservation. In SSA, nutrients will be often be more limiting than water and ISFM is, therefore, key to improved agricultural productivity and increased water use efficiency.
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    Drought and Low Nitrogen Tolerant Hybrids for the Moist Mid Altitude Ecology of Eastern Africa
    (2004-01) Alpha O. Diallo; J. Kikafunda; Legesse Wolde; Omari Odongo; Z. O. Mduruma; W. S. Chivatsi; Stephen N Mugo; Marianne Bänziger; Dennis K. Friesen
    Maize is the principal food staple of the rural and urban poor of eastern and central Africa, constituting > 50% of the caloric intake derived from cereals in the region. Drought and low soil fertility are among the most important constraints to maize production even in the high potential moist mid-altitude eco-zone. This zone, generally falling within the altitudinal range of 1000-1800 masl and characterized by rainfall of >500 mm and mean temperature of 21.5°C, comprises a total area of approximately 500,000 hectares in Kenya alone, and is among the most densely populated regions on the continent. Though of high potential productivity, fertilizer use is constrained by high costs and lack of credit for small holders. Maize productivity in maize-based cropping systems could be greatly improved using varieties that utilize nitrogen (N) from fertilizers and other sources more efficiently as well as tolerating the periodic moisture stress. Farmers in this region have shown a preference for hybrid maize varieties. The objective of the research described here was to develop hybrid maize varieties adapted this ecology that are tolerant of low soil fertility and drought. Drought and low N tolerant inbred lines developed by CIMMYT-Harare in collaboration with CIMMYT Mexico were crossed with two streak resistant testers (CML202 and CML206) during the 1997-98minor season. In 1999, the resulting crosses were evaluated across 7 sites and compared with local checks under both stressed (managed drought and low N) and unstressed conditions. The selected best single cross hybrids were crossed with 2 other testers (CML78 and CML384) in 2000 and the resulting 3 way-hybrids were evaluated as in 1999. Grain yield and secondary traits such as Anthesis-Silking Interval (ASI), leaf senescence, and number of ears per plant were used to select the most promising materials. Eight drought and low N tolerant 3-way hybrids were identified which yield 24, 15 and 64% more than the best commercial hybrid checks under optimum, low N and drought stress conditions, respectively. These hybrids have the potential to increase yields, reduce input requirements and improve yield stability for resource-poor farmers in densely populated high potential eco-zones of Eastern and Southern Africa.
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    Africa Fertilizer Summit Proceedings
    (2007-04) IFDC
    The New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) recognizes the crucial role of economic growth in Africa and the need for a comprehensive strategy to promote agricultural development, food security, and rural progress. To achieve this vision, NEPAD has adopted the Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development Programme (CAADP), which aims to achieve 6% annual growth in agricultural production. However, African farmers face numerous challenges, including low productivity, limited access to agricultural technologies, and weak markets. A significant obstacle is the severe depletion of soils due to decades of nutrient mining, resulting in impoverished soil fertility and the inability to feed the growing population sustainably. Addressing Africa's fertilizer crisis is essential for unleashing the continent's agricultural potential. Currently, fertilizer usage in Africa is only 10% of the global average, averaging eight kilograms per hectare. To overcome this crisis, urgent and bold actions are required. The African Union (AU) convened the Africa Fertilizer Summit in 2006, where African leaders expressed their commitment to solving the fertilizer crisis and achieving a Green Revolution in Africa. The AU's resolution outlines several vital measures to accelerate farmers' access to fertilizers. These include increasing fertilizer usage from the current average of 8 kilograms per hectare to at least 50 kilograms per hectare by 2015, reducing the cost of fertilizer procurement through policy harmonization and tax exemptions, improving farmers' access to fertilizers through networks and subsidies, and investing in infrastructure and financing facilities for input suppliers. The resolution also emphasizes promoting regional fertilizer production, trade, and intra-regional cooperation. Africa's agricultural productivity has stagnated, resulting in chronic food insecurity, poverty, and economic stagnation. By learning from the successful Green Revolution experiences in Asia and Latin America, Africa can unlock its agricultural potential and achieve sustainable development. Increasing productivity, improving farmers' access to inputs, and addressing the fertilizer crisis are essential steps toward ending hunger, reducing poverty, and spurring economic growth in Africa. Establishing monitoring mechanisms and a dedicated financing mechanism will ensure the effective implementation of these measures. With strong commitment and collaboration among governments, development partners, and the private sector, Africa can pave the way for a uniquely African Green Revolution that ensures its people's dignity, peace, and food self-sufficiency.
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    Towards Successful Collective Action for Watershed Development for Improved Smallholder Livelihoods in West Africa
    (2008) Constant Dangbe´gnon; Abdoulaye Mando; J. Sogbedji; R. Zougmoré ; Sansan Youl
    Livelihoods of many people in Sub-Saharan Africa are tightly depending on sustainable watershed resources. Therefore in several countries, watershed development has become a major issue and many interdependent smallholders with low resource endowments are concerned by the use of associated natural resources. In the particular context of West Africa, watersheds are embedded in complex property right relations among users, making collective or individual investments for their development too risky or too difficult to organize. The diversity of watershed development outcomes, for instance infrastructures like stone bunds and institutions for governing watershed activities are analyzed as public goods and common pool resources (CPRs) using the common theory perspectives. It is well known in the literature that collective action is a necessary condition to resolve problems related to public goods and CPRs in different circumstances. Beyond existing empirical explorations of conditions for collective action, this paper focuses on the design of a pathway to make successful collective action to happen using ideas, concepts and theories of communication, social learning, and management sciences. Insights from watershed projects in Benin, Togo, Mali and Burkina Faso enabled understanding of the (i) nature of watershed development problems, (ii) the learning path for alternative solutions, (iii) external support to implement solutions, and (iv) effects on collective action and smallholders’ livelihoods. Key lessons are learnt concerning ways of making watershed problems visible, learning to share a common understanding, and strategies for catalyzing behavioral changes for facilitating the emergence of successful collective action. A synthesis is provided to inform new practices that underpin local institutions building for watershed development that would benefit resource – poor smallholders in West Africa.
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    Informed Site-specific Fertilizer Recommendation for Upland Rice Production in Northern Guinea Savannah of Nigeria
    (2010-01) K.S. Ezui; C.K. Daudu; Abdoulaye Mando; T.M. Kudi; A.C. Odunze; J.O. Adeosun; I.Y. Amapu; B. Tarfa; I. Sambo; I. Bello; Constant Dangbe´gnon
    Despite the overwhelming recognition by small-holders of the important role of mineral fertilizer in rice farming, the average fertilizer use in Nigeria is far below crop requirement for sustainable production. This is because of generalized recommendations for broad areas that take no account of the complexity and diversity of farmers operating contexts. There is a need to develop ‘à la carte’ fertilizer recommendations and strengthen the farmers’ understanding of mineral fertilizer to allow them to fine-tune and pick the most suitable recommendation given their soil type and their economic circumstances. One of the projects of the Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Programme has set out to improve fertilizer use within rice farming communities in the northern guinea savannah (NGS) zone of Nigeria by engaging farmer communities through participatory learning and action-research using nutrient-omission trials as one of the main tools. Farmers installed ‘nutrientomission plots’ in part of their fields on the major soil types of the area. The results revealed that the most limiting nutrient on most soils in the pilot villages was nitrogen, followed by phosphorus. Discussions about the results among actors led to ‘à la carte’ recommendation options tailored to meet farmers’ financial capacities and production goals. These alternative options were evaluated by farmer groups prior to their dissemination.
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    Policy Workshop on Strengthening Regional Trade in Agricultural Inputs in Africa: Issues and Options and Private Sector Roundtable Meeting on Expanding Fertilizer Markets in Africa: Issues and Options
    (2010-06) IFDC
    IFDC, in collaboration with the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), convened a policy workshop entitled "Strengthening Trade in Agricultural Inputs in Africa: Issues and Options," held July 1-4, 2008, in Lusaka, Zambia. The workshop was organized as part of the Hewlett Foundation-funded Strengthening Trade at the Regional Level in Agricultural Inputs in Africa (STAR) project. The workshop aimed to identify public policy, private market, and trade action areas that will improve agricultural input market and trade development. The workshop was attended by more than 70 participants representing regional and national policymakers; private sector entities involved in fertilizer importation, wholesale, and retail trade and logistics; farmer organizations; development partners; and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Key Issues in Agricultural Input Market Development Recent Initiatives and Progress Enhancing international and regional trade has been recognized as a significant opportunity to improve agricultural input markets' performance. The Abuja Declaration on Fertilizer for an African Green Revolution calls for appropriate measures to reduce the cost of fertilizer procurement at national and regional levels. The New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) reported progress on several initiatives that address key resolutions of the Abuja Declaration. The Regional Joint Fertilizer Procurement Initiative, led by the African Development Bank (AfDB), aims to address Resolution 8 of the Abuja Declaration by encouraging and facilitating governments and private firms to place large orders on the international market. A regional meeting was convened in August 2007, which resulted in establishment of a Regional Joint Procurement Working Committee for Fertilizers to spearhead the initiative. As mandated in Resolution 9 of the Abuja Declaration, the promotion of fertilizer production is being pursued by COMESA, the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and numerous development agencies, including IFDC. SADC will commission a series of studies to establish the current production status of fertilizer in the region and recommend ways to increase production. The Abuja Declaration also calls for harmonization of policies to ensure duty- and tax-free movement of fertilizer across regions and the development of capacity for quality control. When the respective COMESA and East African Community (EAC) customs unions are in place, the Common External Tariff (CET) for all imported fertilizers has been proposed at 0 percent. This sets a good example for other Regional Economic Communities (RECs) to promote duty- and tax-free movement of fertilizer across borders. Six Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) member states are in the process of developing fertilizer legislation and supporting regulations. A Private Sector Perspective Before the workshop, a private sector roundtable meeting was convened to discuss issues and identify options for expanding fertilizer markets in Africa. The key issue facing the private sector is Local fertilizer production: High international fertilizer prices suggest that local and regional fertilizer production may be financially and economically viable. However, for urea and ammonium nitrate, it takes four to 6 to five years before a new plant is fully operational, so adding new nitrogen (N) manufacturing capacity is a long-term solution. In the short term, utilization of existing capacity should be improved and re-invested. Several fertilizer plants (e.g., Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe) are operating below capacity or have completely ceased production. While SADC and COMESA are committed to exploring the potential for rehabilitation of these facilities, the private sector encourages policymakers to create commercial investment opportunities. Finance: Sufficient cash flow is a prerequisite for successful fertilizer trade and distribution. Yet, procurement and marketing of fertilizers are constrained by a lack of finance, limiting transaction sizes, inventories and final consumption levels. It stifles total volumes traded and marketed and inhibits the achievement of economies of scale. This reflects a generally risk-averse approach of commercial banks toward agricultural lending. Capacity building among commercial bank loan officers and introducing risk management instruments and other risk-reducing mechanisms may help overcome this key constraint. Policy: First, regarding the role of government in input markets and its relationship with the private sector requires more realistic planning. When the private sector is invited to tender for supplying government programs, tender rules and procedures often require physical stocks to be positioned in-country before tendering. This requirement poses too high a risk for firms and should be addressed. Second, where government programs exist, subsidies were considered to distort markets and inhibit private sector participation in market development. Moreover, fertilizer sales through subsidy programs tend to discourage and displace commercial sales. There is a need to improve subsidy programs and include clear modalities for phasing out government market interventions. Third, COMESA's approach to regional procurement was met with skepticism because it appears to revolve around pooling public procurement among various countries. It was believed that true marketing efficiency gains could be made only by improving the private sector supply chain at various levels and encouraging economies of scale, not by facilitating procurement for government programs or placing large orders by donors. Encouraging economies of scale can include facilitating private stockholding and wholesaling at strategic ports. Resolving finance and other marketing efficiency-enhancing measures can then focus on downstream regional marketing and distribution. Partnerships are needed for this. The private sector should be more involved in COMESA's regional procurement planning process to ensure that workable solutions are developed. While regional procurement by COMESA or public sector agencies was discouraged, establishing a regional holding fertilizer warehouse in port cities like Beira, Dar es Salaam and Accra to benefit from economies of scale in procurement was endorsed. Policy analysis and capacity building among policymakers are required to overcome the current policy constraints in support of the above. Shipping and handling: Investments in infrastructure are required to allow efficient shipping, handling and transport. Without such investments, capacity limitations and other inefficiencies will continue to prevent the fertilizer sector from developing. Beira Port, which serves several countries in southern Africa, is limited to smaller vessels due to silt buildup at the port entrance. The meeting was advised that plans to dredge the port entrance are underway, and dredging is expected to occur within the next few years. There is also a lack of bulk storage capacity. Increased bulk storage capacity will allow more efficient discharge, thus reducing demurrage and more efficient bagging and handling. Port rehabilitation activities and resources should concentrate on Beira Port at this stage. Although Nacala Port can accommodate larger vessels (25,000 mt), the port's handling capacity is low, in poor condition, and will require substantial investment. In addition, the railway line and road access are in poor condition. Establishing bulk-holding fertilizer warehouses will be beneficial. Beira was identified as a priority port for such a warehouse. IFDC's pre-feasibility study on establishing a regional fertilizer-holding warehouse at the port of Beira was discussed and endorsed for further action. 7 Performance of Regional Input Markets Policy: The Kenyan fertilizer market is one of the few African success stories demonstrating how input markets can function under fully liberalized conditions. Competition, vertical integration within the fertilizer supply chain, economies of scale and overall growth in the sector have resulted in significant efficiency gains and cost reductions. During 1990–2006, marketing costs and margins have declined by about 40 percent. The success of the Kenyan fertilizer industry has been attributed primarily to a stable policy environment since 1990. For example, import licensing quotas and foreign exchange and retail price controls were eliminated. Importantly, no large subsidy programs have been implemented, and market distortions caused by artificially low fertilizer prices offered by donors or the government have been kept to a minimum. This has undoubtedly boosted the confidence in the market by the private sector. Regrettably, in 2008, the Kenyan government engaged directly in the market by importing fertilizers. Reducing marketing costs: Besides market-friendly policies and competition among market participants, other measures are required to reduce costs along the agricultural input supply chain. Marketing costs in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are extremely high compared to countries in Asia. Ocean freight and land transport costs are two to three times higher than those incurred in Asia, caused by smaller vessel sizes due to port capacity constraints and the poor quality of inland road and rail infrastructure. Tariff and non-tariff barriers for imports and goods in transit add to the marketing costs. In addition, the relatively small market and the use of many specialized NPK compounds prevent economies of scale from being achieved through bulk procurement. Establishing a bulk warehousing facility at Beira Port can potentially reduce the cost of fertilizer imports by $30–$60/mt. Stimulating local fertilizer production is high on the regional and national policy agendas. The company Minjingu Mines and Fertilizer, based in Tanzania, represents a good example of how a former state-owned company was successfully privatized. Regulatory issues: Regulatory frameworks governing intra-regional trade in fertilizer, seed and crop protection products (CPPs) are either absent or not implemented. Regarding seed and CPPs, regulatory frameworks have been developed at the regional level (SADC, ECOWAS), and the challenge now is to ensure implementation and enforcement. The absence of a regulatory framework for fertilizer constitutes a significant non-tariff barrier that impedes trade and hinders investment and market development. In international trade, non-tariff measures are dealt with under specific World Trade Organization (WTO) agreements, such as the Agreement on Agriculture and the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT). WTO defines technical trade barriers as regulations, standards, testing and certification procedures which could obstruct trade. If regulations are set arbitrarily, they can be used as an excuse for protectionism or disadvantage market participants. The WTO's TBT Agreement seeks to minimize technical barriers to trade by encouraging members to adhere to several basic principles and recognizes that members must ensure quality control; protect human, animal and plant life or health; protect the environment; and prevent malpractice. However, it also states that technical regulations should not create unnecessary obstacles to trade. Under this principle, fertilizer regulations should refrain from prescribing specific nutrient compositions or granule sizes. Private Sector Development Developing agricultural input markets cannot be achieved without stimulating private sector activity. In countries where government programs are responsible for distributing subsidized fertilizer and seed, the private sector cannot compete and remains underdeveloped. Therefore, market support mechanisms that add to, not displace, commercial activity are required. Rather than reducing the product's price, farmers' purchasing power can be boosted among targeted farmers, creating effective demand and generating market activity. However, long-term sustainability must be taken into account. Voucher programs have been developed to transfer purchasing power support to targeted beneficiaries. To ensure that farmers will eventually be able to use fertilizer profitably under normal, non-subsidized market conditions, any subsidy or income transfer program should be complemented by programs that, among other things, aim to reduce marketing costs and enhance commercial credit availability. 8 An important dimension of increasing fertilizer use in SSA is the need for improving acidic soils that prevent efficient nutrient uptake. Improving acidic soils by adding lime or reactive phosphate rock can be seen as a public responsibility for which public investments must be made. Identification of Actions on Key Themes The outcomes of the presentations and subsequent discussions resulted in an action agenda that addresses short-term and longer-term agricultural input development issues. The following eight action areas have been identified: 1. Improve the policy environment by strengthening the policy-making process. 2. Remove trade barriers. 3. Improve access to finance. 4. Increase African fertilizer production capacity. 5. Enhance the performance of fertilizer procurement from international markets. 6. Facilitate identification of private sector business opportunities. 7. Promote market development. 8. Promote fertilizer technology development and transfer. For each action area, one or more actions have been identified that will guide ongoing market development efforts at COMESA, EAC, SADC and other RECs, mostly requiring public-private partnerships.
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    Private Investment in Agricultural Research and TechnologyTransfer in Africa
    (2011) Carl E. Pray; David Gisselquist; Latha Nagarajan
    This study is based on surveys of private-sector innovation and research in Kenya, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, and Zambia in 2009 and 2010. With the exception of South Africa, Private R&D in Sub-Saharan Africa is still limited, but it is growing rapidly in several countries and is concentrated in the seed industry. The study found that innovations in plant varieties, machinery, pesticides, fertilizers, and poultry imported by private agribusiness have been important sources of new agricultural technology. A search of the literature shows that private technology increased agricultural productivity in Africa. The adoption of proprietary hybrids of maize increased yields in Tanzania. Modern poultry technology increased poultry productivity in Nigeria, and private sugarcane research in South Africa increased productivity there. Many studies show that proprietary genetically modified maize and cotton improved the yields, incomes, and health of smallholder farmers in South Africa and Burkina Faso. Government policies that encouraged research on private technology and its introduction include the liberalization of agricultural input and output markets by reducing trade barriers, eliminating government monopolies, and allowing local and foreign private firms to enter agribusiness. A second set of important policies include a stable policy and regulatory environment and reduced taxation on the agricultural sector. Once liberalization and favorable policies are in place, government investments in R&D and higher education and technology policies, such as strengthening patents, can encourage more private innovation and R&D.
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    Can Controlled-Release Phosphate Fertilizer Improve Phosphorus Efficiency?
    (2012-10-23) Sampson Agyin-Birikorang; Upendra Singh; Joaquin Sanabria; Wendie D. Bible
    Many phosphorus (P) uptake kinetic studies show that the pattern of P uptake in the early growth stages of annual crops is generally similar to crop dry matter accumulation. Thus, we hypothesized that matching P delivery to crops’ P demand could increase P uptake and use efficiency of annual crops in the season of P application. In greenhouse studies, we simulated controlled-release P fertilizer by making small, periodic additions of fertilizer P directly into the root zone of two cereal crops through “feeding” tubes for quick and continual plant P uptake. The crops were grown on a P deficient highly weathered soil with P retention capacity of ~20%. Split application of P, where a portion of P is applied at planting and other portions applied at subsequent time intervals, was utilized as a simulation of controlled-release P fertilizer. Upland rice and winter wheat were used as test crops in the spring-summer and winter seasons, respectively. The crops’ growth phenology was monitored, and samples were harvested at heading and maturity stages to determine yield and P uptake. Preliminary data show that supplying P in small doses over time shortened the days to panicle initiation, heading and maturity, and improved P uptake efficiency relative to basally applying P at planting. Treatment effects on yield, so far, are not conclusive. However, based on P uptake efficiency and growth rate of the two cereal crops, we hypothesize that controlled-release P fertilizer could improve P efficiency in the season of P application. This could have major agronomic and environmental benefits.
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    Minimizing Nitrogen Losses From Cropping Systems: Effectiveness of Organically-Enhanced Nitrogen Fertilizer.
    (2012-10-24) Upendra Singh; Joaquin Sanabria; Rick Austin; Sampson Agyin-Birikorang; Wendie D. Bible
    A new nitrogen (N) fertilizer, organically-enhanced fertilizer, produced by utilizing sterilized and chemically converted organic additives extracted from municipal wastewater biosolids, were evaluated for N mineralization, ammonia volatilization, N leaching, and effects on soil acidification, relative to urea, a commonly used N fertilizer. Laboratory incubations at three temperature levels (20, 30, and 40°C), two sets of column leaching schemes (continuous and intermittent irrigation regimes), and ammonia volatilization experiments under aerobic (upland) and anaerobic (flooded) conditions were conducted in four appropriate soils (Greenville loam, Lakeland sand, Guthrie silty-clay, and Sumter clay). The organically-enhanced fertilizer had significantly lower nitrification than urea. At all three temperature levels, the lag phase during the nitrification process was 28.6 days for organically-enhanced fertilizers compared to 5.5 days for urea. The longer lag phase duration with organically-enhanced fertilizer could result in reduced nitrate losses. This was confirmed in leaching studies where nitrate leaching resulting from the two irrigation regimes was significantly lower for the organically-enhanced fertilizer than urea. Amending the soil with the organically-enhanced fertilizer had ammonia volatilization losses (5% and 22% of applied N) significantly lower than those of the urea-fertilized soil (33% and 58% of applied N) under aerobic and anaerobic conditions, respectively. We conclude that the organically-enhanced fertilizer could be an attractive N source under both upland and flooded cropping systems. Recycling of sterilized and converted organic wastes (carbon, amino acids, and micronutrients), and minimizing N losses from land to atmosphere and surface- and ground water bodies could have environmental and food security benefits.
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    Mapping Global Ecosystem Degradation and its Impacts
    (2013) Ben ten Brink; Bindraban, Prem S.; Zhanguo Ba; Michel Bakkenes; Rens van Beek; Maurits van den Berg; Sjaak Conijn; Jan Janse; Kees Klein Goldewijk; Lars Lastaedius; Godert van Lynden; Susan Minnemeyer; Christoph Muller; Sybill Schaphoff; Ben Sonneveld; Jetse Stoorvogel; Arnoud Temme
    The awareness that ecosystem degradation has detrimental implications for livelihoods, biodiversity and climate change has resulted in the renewed call by policymakers for quantitative information on degradation and the implication on ecosystem functioning as a basis for food, water and energy security, and the cost of rehabilitation. Progress towards agreed policy targets, including restoration of 15% of degraded ecosystems (CBD) or for a zero net degradation (UNCCD) cannot be measured without quantified information. Much research on land degradation over the past decades has given partial views on various components only. We elaborate a methodology to integrate knowledge from various disciplines for quantitative estimates of global land degradation and loss of ecosystem functioning in the past, present and future. Advances in information technology and remote sensing facilitate analysis of massive amounts of remotely sensed and legacy data and the integration with complex quantitative crop, soil and climate modelling into global assessment methods. Changes in net primary production world-wide over the past three decades and geographically specified information on climatic variations, soil and land use provide the basis for identification and mapping of ongoing ecosystem degradation. For identifying and mapping and historical degradation, pristine soil conditions of soil depth, top soil depth, soil organic matter and sand, silt and clay content, are reconstructed through back casting from knowledge about the impact of land use and other soil forming factors on soil characteristics and productivity. Subsequently, the loss -and consequently- restoration potential of ecosystem functions such as water retention, biodiversity maintenance, food and fibre production, and floods, drought and climate regulation, can be assessed by using the global models IMAGE, GLOBIO, LPJmL and PC-GLOB-WB. Costs and benefits of restoration can be estimated based on the global WOCAT database that contains over 450 case studies of location specific conservation measures and their impact on productivity and other ecosystem services.
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    Quality Assessment of Fertilizers Commercialized in West Africa
    (2013-11) Joaquin Sanabria; Georges Dimithe; Emmanuel Alognikou
    This study assesses the quality of fertilizers available in West African markets, focusing on Ghana, Nigeria, Côte d'Ivoire, Senegal, and Togo. The absence of a regional legal framework for fertilizer regulation and limited implementation of existing regulations have led to concerns about the low quality of fertilizer products and their adverse impact on the economy and farmers' finances. The primary objectives include diagnosing fertilizer quality, identifying factors contributing to quality issues, and supporting the development of a regulatory system within ECOWAS member countries.
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    Evaluation of Boron Produced As Seed-Core Urea for Urease Inhibition
    (2013-11) Upendra Singh; Job Fugice; Wendie D. Bible; Austin, E. Rick ; Joaquin Sanabria
    Borax (Na2B4O7.5 H2O) and boric acid (H3BO3) were evaluated as urease inhibitors by quantifying ammonia (NH3) volatilization loss under upland and flooded conditions. Boron-enriched urea was produced by two methods – compaction/tableting and seed-core granulation. The NH3 losses from the B products were compared with urea, urea + N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (NBTPT) and urea + cyclohexyl phosphoric triamide (CHPT). The greenhouse study was conducted over a 17-day period and a 25-day period for the upland and flooded soils, respectively. The following year the experiment was repeated using freshly made and original products. Ammonia volatilization loss was a major N loss pathway under both the upland and flooded conditions accounting for losses of 34% and 51% of applied urea-N, respectively under the conditions of the experiment. The method of production of urea products containing B did not influence the NH3 volatilization loss. All B seed-core urea products were effective in reducing ammonia volatilization losses; however, when compared with urease inhibitors, NBTPT and CHPT, they were less effective. Under the upland condition, B seed-core urea gave as much as 37% lower NH3 volatilization loss than urea during the first 5 days, compared to only 17% lower volatilization loss after 17 days. Similar results of 37% and 10% lower NH3-N losses were obtained with flooded soil for first 5 days and after 15 days, respectively. Throughout the entire experimental period, losses of ammonia from soil treated with B seed-core urea were significantly lower than losses of ammonia from the same soils with urea applied alone. While there was no decline in the effectiveness of B seed-core urea products, the NBTPT product showed significant loss of activity during the 12-month storage period. Among the B products 0.5% B as boric acid was as effective as 2% B as borax in reducing volatilization losses. The single high rate of urea-N application (200 kg N ha-1) and the absence of a crop in this study may have influenced the effectiveness of B as a urease inhibitor, and most likely resulted in higher ammonia volatilization loss.
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    Towards Fertilisers for Improved Uptake by Plants
    (2014-07) Bindraban, Prem S.; Christian O. Dimkpa; Rudy Rabbinge
    Meeting human needs within the ecological limits of our planet calls for continuous reflection on and redesigning of our agricultural practices. Several transformations that drastically changed the course of agriculture have been realised over the past century including dramatic increases in yields, reduced labour requirement, optimised use efficiency of inputs and chain logistics, and spatial integration of agricultural and natural functions within the landscape, caused by driving forces such as growing ecological insights, technological innovations and societal change. The discovery and use of mineral fertilisers has been one of the driving forces for increased crop yields and agricultural productivity. These benefits come however at an environmental cost and have not yet been effectively used to lift many poor farmers out of poverty. Any imbalanced composition of nutrients contained in fertilisers could also cause reduced nutritional quality of crop produce. Agronomic practices to apply existing fertilisers at the right time, the right place, in the right amount, and of the right composition can improve the use efficiency of fertilisers. Yet, the overall progress to reduce the negative side effects is insufficient for the desired transformation in agriculture. There have been no fundamental reflections about the role and functioning of mineral fertilisers over the past four decades or more, and little investment is made in mineral fertiliser research and development. It is for this reason that the Virtual Fertilizer Research Centre was established to foster the creation of the next generation of fertilisers and production technologies in order to help feed the world's growing population and provide sustainable increases in global food production. The centre is virtual in the sense that it comprises the work of multiple research institutions around the world, cooperating to advance a unified research agenda. It is proposed in this paper to more deliberately adopt knowledge of plant physiological processes, including the diversity of mineral nutrient uptake mechanisms, their translocation and metabolism as an entry point in identifying the composition, amount, and timing of nutrients to meet plant physiological needs for improved instantaneous uptake. In addition to the root, efforts should be redoubled with several other avenues, which as of now are at best haphazard, for the delivery of nutrients to the plant. The current surge in nanotechnology could for instance be leveraged to produce or deliver fertilisers in nanoparticle forms. Furthermore, ecological processes including interactions and symbioses with micro-organisms could be exploited to enhance nutrient uptake. This paper reflects on current fertilisers and proposed research and development avenues to arrive at novel fertilisers or delivery mechanism that can leapfrog agro-technical and socio-economic developments. In addition to R&D efforts on fertiliser development, a global dialogue and the engagement of actors from sectors other than the traditional agricultural and environmental sectors will be needed. Given the link between plant fertilisation and nutrition and human nutrition, and the role as input factor in raising agricultural productivity, such actors would include those from the health and medical sector, the food industry, and development organisations.
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    Climate-Smart Water and Nitrogen Management Strategies for Lowland Rice
    (2015-03-17) Yam Kanta Gaihre; Bindraban, Prem S.; Upendra Singh; Joaquin Sanabria; M. Abdus Satter
    World Nitrogen (N) fertilizer consumption is around 100 million metric tons and is expected to increase with growing food production. However, the N use efficiency with current surface application of urea is extremely low (35-40%) due to its losses from ammonia volatilization, nitrification, denitrification and runoff, particularly under flooded rice cultivation. N losses disrupt natural ecosystems, impair water quality and contribute to global warming (nitrous oxide [N2O] emissions). Climate-smart technologies maximize synergies while minimizing tradeoffs associated with increased productivity and sustainable farmer income, reduced environmental pollution and reduced vulnerability to climate variability and risks. Technologies that reduce environmental footprint without sacrificing productivity, farmer income and sustainability are more likely be adopted by farmers. Modified urea-N fertilizers and/or subsurface application have resulted in significant reduction in N losses and increased productivity. In Bangladesh subsurface application of urea – urea deep placement (UDP) – has increased rice yield by 15-18% while reducing N use by one-third compared with broadcast urea. UDP also resulted in significant reduction in N volatilization loss (<5% vs. 25-35% with conventional application) and N2O emissions. N2O emissions from UDP fields were as low as emissions from unfertilized N plots, ranging from 20-50 g N2O-N ha-1 (wet season) to 100-160 g N2O-N ha-1 (dry season). Moreover, the drudgery of deep-placement was reduced with the use of affordable applicators, and, combined with a single N application and reduced weeding, it decreased labor requirement by 15-25% compared to broadcast urea. UDP technology has proven to be an effective climate-smart agricultural practice that increases the food production and wellbeing of poor rice farmers and reduces GHG emissions through the combination of reduced N fertilizer use and reduced N losses. Preliminary results also show reduced N2O emissions from UDP under alternate-wetting and drying conditions (AWD). The combination of UDP and AWD resulted in reduced N2O and methane emissions, water saving and higher grain yield compared to continuously flooded conditions with conventional application of urea.
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    Differential Response of Rice Plants to Foliar Application of Iron and Phosphate is Regulated by Antioxidant Scavenging System
    (2016-03) Sandeep Sharma; Priyanka Borah; Lakshmi Raj; Mukesh Kumar Meena; Bindraban, Prem S.; Mandira Barman; Renu Pandey
    This conference paper investigates the differential response of rice plants to foliar applications of iron (Fe) and phosphate (P) and explores the role of the antioxidant scavenging system in regulating this response. Phosphorus and iron are essential nutrients for plant growth and development, and foliar application is a practical approach to supplement these nutrients due to their limited bioavailability in soil. The study conducted experiments to assess how different Fe and P compounds affect rice plants and found varying responses based on the compounds used. Specifically, the paper discusses the impact on antioxidant enzyme activities, lipid peroxidation, nutrient partitioning, and yield-related traits. The results highlight the importance of optimizing nutrient concentrations to achieve better plant growth while avoiding oxidative stress. The findings provide valuable insights into enhancing nutrient management strategies for rice cultivation.